The Complete Guide To The TOEFL Test
.pdf154 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
8.The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ______ the first air conditioning system for trains in 1931.
__ (A) has installed __ (B) installed
___ (C) to have installed __ (D) installing
9. Porous rocks such as chalk and sandstone allow water _____ |
through them. |
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__ (A) soaks |
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__ (B) is soaked |
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__ (C) to soak |
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__ (D) can soak |
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10. By 1790, rice |
an important crop in the South. |
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__ (A) being |
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__ (B) has been |
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__ (C) was |
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__ (D) was being |
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11. Weavers are social birds that |
complex nests housing hundreds of families. |
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__ (A) build |
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__ (B) are built |
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__ (C) are building __ (D) built
12.The American dancer Maria Tallchief first ______ prominent in Europe. __ (A) to become
__ (B) become
__ (C) has become __ (D) became
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 155
LESSON 26
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INCOMPLETE OR MISSING INFINITIVE AND GERUND PHRASES i
An infinitive is a verbal form that consists of the word to and the simple form of the verb: to be, to go, to give, to bUild. Infinitives are often followed by an object: to give directions, to build a house. Together, an infinitive and its object form an infinitive phrase.
Infinitives can be used in a variety of ways. They may be the subjects or objects of verbs or used after to be + adjective.
To read the directions is important. (infinitive as subject of a verb)
He forgot to read the directions. (infinitive as object of a verb)
It's important to read the directions. (infinitive after to be + adjective)
Infinitives can be used as adjective phrases after noun phrases. You will often see this in Structure problems after noun phrases containing the word first.
John Glenn was the first American to orbit the Earth.
Infinitives can also be used to show purpose. In other words, they explain why an action takes place. (The phrase in order + infinitive also shows purpose.) These infinitive phrases often come at the beginning of a sentence, and are set off by commas.
To learn how to dance, he took lessons.
In order to learn how to dance, he took lessons.
You may see Structure items that focus on passive infInitives. A passive infinitive consists of the word to + be + past participle.
Roberta was the first person to be asked to speak at the meeting.
A gerund is a verbal form that ends in -ing: being, going, giving, building. Like infinitives, gerunds are often followed by objects: giving directions, building a house. Together, a gerund and its object form a gerund phrase.
Gerunds are verbal nouns, and are used as other nouns are used. You will generally see gerunds as subjects or objects of verbs or as objects of prepositions. (Note: Infmitives can also be subjects and objects but never objects of prepositions.)
Playing cards is enjoyable. (gerund as subject of a verb)
He enjoys playing cards. (gerund as object of a verb)
He passes the time by playing cards. (gerund as object of a preposition)
... Sample Items
______ the eggs of most birds must be kept warm.
(A)Proper development
(B)By properly developing,
(C)They develop properly
(D)To develop properly,
The only one of these for phrases listed here that can show purpose is choice (D), an infinitive. This expression means in order to develop properly.
156 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
In 1959 the political philosopher Hannah Arendt became the ftrst woman
______ a full professor at Princeton University.
(A)to appoint
(B)was appointed
(C)to be appointed
(D)an appointment as
After a noun phrase such as the first woman an inftnitive is used as an adjective phrase. Because a passive form is needed (Hannah Arendt receives the action; she doesn't perform the action), choice (A) is not the correct inftnitive form. Choice (C), a passive inftnitive, is best.
The ear is the organ of hearing, but it also plays a role in ______
balance.
(A)maintaining
(B)it maintains
(C)to maintain
(D)maintained
A gerund is used correctly after a preposition. Choices (B), (C), and (D) would not
be appropriate after a preposition. ...
Exercise 26
Focus: Completing structure problems involving inftnitive and gerund phrases. (Note: One or two of the items in this exercise do not focus on inftnitives or gerunds. These items are marked in the answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence, and then mark the appropriate blank. The ftrst one is done as an example.
1. for a career in dance generally begins at an early age. People train
__ (B) That people train __ (C) Iftraining
~(D) Training
2.A baby's ftrst teeth ______ are generally the lower incisors.
___ (A) appearance __ (B) appear
~(C) to appear
__ (D) in appearing
3.A climbing helmet ______ protection for a rock-climber's head from falling rocks and other hazards.
___ (A) to provide
----'bL-(B) provides
__ (C) providing __ (D) that provides
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 157
4.Power tools require careful handling ______ injuries. __ (A) by avoiding
__ (B) they avoid
___ (C) to avoid
___ (D) that avoid
5.An electromagnet is created ______ electrical current through a coil of wire. __ (A) by passing
__ (B) passes by
___ (C) to be passed __ (D) passed
6. at home requires only three types of chemicals, several pieces of simple equipment, and running water.
___ (A) For the development of film __ (B) To develop film
___ (C) When film is developed
___ (D) In developing film
7.The purpose of cost accounting is ______ involved in producing and selling a good or service.
___ (A) as a determination of its costs
___ (B) the costs determined
___ (C) that determines the costs
___ (D) to determine the costs
8. was one of the most difficult tasks pioneers faced on their journeys west.
___ (A) Crossing rivers
___ (B) While crossing rivers
___ (C) Rivers being crossed
___ (D) By crossing rivers
9.Energy can be defined as the ability ______
__ (A) do working
___ (B) to do work
__ (C) doing work
___ (D) work to be done
10. The process of |
by hand has changed little since the fifteenth century. |
__ (A) to bind books |
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__ (B) binding books |
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___ (C) books are bound |
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__ (D) bound books |
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11.A crescent wrench has adjustable jaws for ______ a nut, bolt, or pipe. __ (A) to grip
__ (B) they grip __ (C) gripping __ (D) gripped
12. Compressed air is |
air brakes, pneumatic tools, and other machinery. |
___ (A) used to powering |
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___ (B) to use powering |
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___ (C) used to power |
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___ (D) in use by powering |
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158 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression |
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13. Some people believe that the crystals of certain minerals |
curative powers. |
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__ (A) have |
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__ (B) having |
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__ (C) that have |
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__ (D) to have |
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14. The narrow blades of speed skates allow |
speeds of up to 30 miles per hour. |
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___ (A) for skaters maintaining |
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___ (B) skaters to maintain |
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___ (C) skaters maintain |
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___ (D) maintenance by skaters |
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15. The first library |
in the Nebraska Territory was built in Fort Atkinson in 1870. |
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__ (A) to be established |
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__ (B) was established |
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__ (C) could establish __ (D) to establish
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 159
LESSON 27
ITEMS INVOLVING PARALLEL STRUCTURES
In certain Structure items, the correct use of parallel structures is tested. Parallel structures have the same grammatical form and function. Look at the following sentences:
She spends her leisure time hiking, camping, and fishing.
He changed the oil, checked the tire pressure, andfilled the tank with gas.
Nancy plans to either study medicine or major in biology.
Nancy plans to study either medicine or biology.
All of the structures in italics are parallel. In the first, three gerunds are parallel; in the second, three main verbs; in the third, two simple forms; in the fourth, two nouns. Many other structures must be parallel in certain sentences: adjectives, adverbs, infinitives, prepositional phrases, noun clauses, and others.
The most common situation in which parallel structures are required is in a sequence (A, B, and C) as in the first two sentences above. Parallel structures are also required with correlative conjunctions such as either . .. or or not on(y ... but also. (Correlative conjunctions are presented in Lesson 30.)
T Sample Item
San Francisco has a pleasant climate, ______ and many fascinating neighborhoods.
(A)exciting scenery,
(B)has exciting scenery
(C)that the scenery is exciting
(D)the scenery is exciting,
This sentence contains a series of three objects after the verb has: the first and third are noun phrases (a pleasant climate and many fascinating neighborhoods). To be parallel, the second object must also be a noun phrase. Therefore, choice (A) is the correct answer; (B), (C), and (D) are not parallel. ...
Exercise 27
Focus: Completing structure problems involving parallelism. (Note: One or two items in the exercise do not focus on items involving parallel structures. These items are marked in the answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence, and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1.Insects provide many beneficial services, such as ______ , breaking down deadwood, and pollinating plants.
___ (A) they condition soils
___ (B) to condition soil
~ (C) conditioning the soil
___ (D) soil conditioned
160 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
2.Frozen orange juice must be packed, ______ , and stored when the fruit is ripe. __ (A) be frozen
___ (B) must be frozen __ (C) frozen
___ (D) it must be frozen
3.Sioux is a North American Indian language that is spoken not only ______ Sioux but also by the Crow and Osage tribes.
__ (A) by the __ (B) the __ (C) do the __ (D) and the
4.In 1900 electrically powered cars were more popular than gasoline powered cars because they were quiet, operated smoothly, and ______
__ (A) handled easily __ (B) ease of handling __ (C) handling easily __ (D) easy to handle
5.Roger Williams was a clergyman, ______ the colony of Rhode Island, and an outspoken advocate of religious and political freedom.
__ (A) founded __ (B) the founder of
___ (C) was the founder of __ (D) he founded
6.Paint can be applied to a surface with rollers, ______ , or spray guns. __ (A) brushes
___ (B) brushes can be used
___ (C) with brushes
. __ (D) by brush
7.The use of labor-saving devices in homes, ______ , and factories added to the amount of leisure time people had.
___ (A) at an office
___ (B) used in offices
___ (C) offices
___ (D) in offices
8.A dulcimer can be played by either striking its strings with a hammer or ______
___ (A) to pluck them with the fingers
___ (B) fingers are used to pluck them
___ (C) they are plucked with the fingers __ (D) plucking them with the fingers
9.Throughout history, trade routes have increased contact between people, ______ , and greatly affected the growth of civilization.
___ (A) have resulted in an exchange of ideas
___ (B) an exchange of ideas has resulted
___ (C) resulted in an exchange of ideas
___ (D) reSUlting in an exchange of ideas
10.Walt Disney made many technical advances in the use of sound, color, and ______ in animated films.
__ (A) photographing __ (B) using photography
~ (C) photography __ (D) use of photographs
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 161
11.Artist Paul Kane traveled throughout Northwest Canada on foot, by canoe, and ______ to sketch Native Canadians going about their ordinary lives.
__ (A) on horseback
___ (B) riding a horse __ (C) horseback __ (D) by a horse
12.Barbara Jordan was the first woman in the South to win an election to the House of
Representatives,
___ (A) to serve __ (B) served __ (C) serving __ (D) has served
as Congresswoman from Texas from 1973 to 1979.
13. Photographers' choice of a camera depends on what kind of pictures they want to take, how much control they want over exposure, and they want to spend.
___ (A) the amount of money
___ (B) what money
___ (C) how much money
___ (D) so much money that
14.Atlanta is the commercial, financial, and ______ of Georgia.
___ (A) center of administration
___ (B) administrative center
___ (C) center for administering
___ (D) administering center
15.Even after the Revolutionary War, American importers obtained merchandise from Britain because British merchants understood American tastes, offered attractive prices, and
___ (A) easy credit was provided
___ (B) because of easy credit
___ (C) easy credit
___ (D) provided easy credit
162 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression
LESSON 28
ITEMS INVOLVING MISPLACED MODIFIERS
A misplaced modifier is a participial phrase or other modifier that comes before the subject, but does not refer to the subject.
Look at this sentence:
*Driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the road in front of Liza's car. (INCORRECn
This sentence is incorrect because it seems to say that a herd of sheep-rather than Liza-was driving down the road. The participial phrase is misplaced. The sentence could be corrected as shown:
As Liza was driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the ro~d in front of her. (CORRECn
This sentence now correctly has Liza in the driver's seat instead of the sheep. The following sentence structures are often misplaced:
present participle |
Walking along the beach, the |
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ship was spotted by the men. |
past participle |
Based on this study, the |
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scientist could make several |
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conclusions. |
appositive |
A resort city in Arkansas, the |
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population of Hot Springs is |
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about 35,000. |
reduced adjective clause |
While peeling onions, his eyes |
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began to water. |
adjective phrases |
Warm and mild, everyone |
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enjoys the climate of the |
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Virgin Islands. |
expressions with like |
Like most cities, parking is a |
or unlike |
problem in San Francisco. |
Walking along the beach, the men spotted the ship.
Based on this study, several conclusions could be made by the scientist.
A resort city in Arkansas, Hot Springs has a population of about 35,000.
While he was peeling onions, his eyes began to water.
Everyone enjoys the warm, mild climate of the Virgin Islands.
Like most cities, San Francisco has a parking problem.
Structure items with misplaced modifiers are usually easy to spot. They generally consist of a modifying element at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma, with the rest or most of the rest of the sentence missing. The answer choices tend to be long. To find the answer, you must decide what subject the modifier correctly refers to.
T Sample Item
Using a device called a cloud chamber, ______
(A)experimental proof for the atomic theory was found by Robert Millikin
(B)Robert Millikin's experimental proof for the atomic theory was found
(C)Robert Millikin found experimental proof for the atomic theory
(D)there was experimental proof found for the atomic theory by Robert Millikin
Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 163
Choice (A) and (B) are incorrect because the modifier (Using a device called a cloud chamber . ..) could not logically refer to the subjects (experimental proof and Robert Millikin's experimental proof). (D) is incorrect because a modifier can never properly refer to the introductory word there or it. ...
Exercise 28
Focus: Completing structure problems involving misplaced modifiers. (Note: all the items in this exercise focus on misplaced modifiers.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences, and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1.Fearing economic hardship,
~ (A) many New Englanders emigrated to the Midwest in the 1820's
___ (B) emigration from New England to the Midwest took place in the 1820's
___ (C) it was in the 1820's that many New Englanders emigrated to the Midwest
___ (D) an emigration took place in the 1820's from New England to the Midwest
2.Rich and distinctive in flavor, ______
___ (A) there is in the United States a very important nut crop, the pecan
___ (B) the most important nut crop in the United States, the pecan
___ (C) farmers in the United States raise pecans, a very important nut crop _~ (D) pecans are the most important nut crop in the United States
3.Orbiting from 2.7 to 3.6 billion miles from the sun,
___ (A) the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto in 1930
___ (B) Pluto was discovered by the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh in 1930
___ (C) it was in 1930 that the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto
___ (D) the discovery of Pluto was made by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930
4. A popular instrument,
___ (A) only a limited role has been available to the accordion in classical music
___ (B) there is only a limited role for the accordion in classical music
___ (C) classical music provides only a limited role for the accordion
___ (D) the accordion has played only a limited role in classical music
5.Unlike most birds, ______
___ (A) the heads and necks of vultures lack feathers
___ (B) feathers are not found on the heads and necks of vultures
___ (C) vultures do not have feathers on their heads and necks
___ (D) there are no feathers on vultures' heads and necks
6.Widely reproduced in magazines and books, ____
___ (A) AnselAdams depicted the Western wilderness in his photographs
___ (B) the Western wilderness was depicted in the photographs ofAnsel Adams
___ (C) Ansel Adams's photographs depicted the Western wilderness
___ (D) it was through his photographs that Ansel Adams depicted the Western wilderness
7.Smaller and flatter than an orange,
___ (A) a tangerine is easy to peel and its sections separate readily
___ (B) the peel of a tangerine is easily removed and its sections are readily separated
___ (C) it's easy to peel a tangerine and to separate its sections
___ (D) to peel a tangerine is easy, and its sections can be readily separated