Смирнова С.Н. English grammar Guide for technical students
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Согласование времен
(Sequence of tenses)
В английском языке время сказуемого в придаточном предложении (дополнительном, подлежащем и сказуемом) зависит от времени сказуемого в главном предложении и может выражать одновременность, предшествование и последующее действие.
Pattern 1
1)одновременное действие
he works in the field of physics
he is working in the field of physics
2)предшествующее действие
He says that he worked in the field of physics
he has worked in the field of physics
he has been working in the field of physics
3)последующее действие
he will work in the field of physics
Pattern 2
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1) |
одновременное действие |
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he worked in the field of physics |
He said |
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he was working in the field of physics |
2) предшествующее действие |
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he had worked in the field of physics |
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he had been working in the field of physics |
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3) |
последующее действие |
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he would work in the field of physics |
Exercise 13. Translate. Pay attention to the sequence of tenses.
1.Scientists always believed that certain facts of the physical world were absolute, that they would never change.
2.Scientists always believed that it was impossible to stop progress in science and technology.
3.Roentgen found that radiation from a cathode-ray tube penetrated matter.
4.During his experiments the French scientist Becquerel noticed that uranium emitted radiations when it was acted upon by sunlight.
5.Marie Curie decided to learn whether any other elements gave off rays like uranium.
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6.In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered that radium emitted rays consisting of particles smaller than the atom.
7.E. Rutherford discovered that radium emitted three different types of rays.
8.After these discoveries physicists saw that the whole traditional concept of the structure of matter had to be completely revised.
9.In 1905 Albert Einstein found that matter could be converted into energy – very little matter into very great energy.
10.E. Rutherford and N. Bohr developed their revolutionary theory and declared what the atom was really like.
11.It was evident to the scientists that the neutron was the key to splitting the atom.
12.Scientists understood there was a way to control a chain reaction and they found it.
13.Many competent scientists working in the field of nuclear physics hoped that they would never succeed in releasing nuclear power.
14.When Norbert Wiener first used the word “cybernetics”, he didn’t know that this word would become so popular in the world of science.
15.The programmer didn’t know what results he would obtain after he had finished his calculations.
16.Some people understood that the introduction of computer technology would create wonders and would cause problems.
17.The Language. When I arrived in London I thought I knew English. After I had been here an hour I realized that I did not understand one word. In the first week I picked up a working knowledge of the language and the next seven years convinced me that I would never know it really well, let alone perfectly. This is sad, my only consolation being that nobody can speak English perfectly (G.Mikes).
18.When asked what his job was, an intelligence agent answered that his mission was so secret that he didn’t know himself what he was and what he did.
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THE INFINITIVE
I. Forms of the Infinitive
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Active |
Passive |
Simple |
to ask |
to be asked |
Continuous |
to be asking |
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Perfect |
to have asked |
to have been asked |
Perfect |
to have been asking |
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Continuous
Compare: |
to ask you |
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to be asking |
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I am glad |
to have asked |
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to have been asking |
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to be asked |
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to have been asked |
II.Functions of the Infinitive
1.The Infinitive at the beginning of the sentence (A-Subject, B- Adverbial Modifier).
Patterns:
A.To solve this problem is important.
Решить эту проблему важно.
B.To solve this problem you must know the theory.
Чтобы решить эту проблему, вы должны знать теорию.
Exercise 1. Translate. Pay attention to the place of the infinitive.
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A. Subject |
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B. Adverbial Modifier |
(подлежащее– что?) |
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(обстоятельство – для чего?) |
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1. |
To know physics well is |
1. |
To know physics well we must |
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a great pleasure. |
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study hard. |
2. |
To translate this text |
2. |
To translate this text I had to use a |
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takes a lot of time. |
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special dictionary. |
3. |
To make this experiment 3. |
To make this experiment we must |
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is important. |
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get some new equipment |
4. |
To explain this phe- |
4. |
To explain this phenomenon you |
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nomenon is possible. |
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must study it. |
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5.To obtain accurate results is our aim.
6.To prove this law experimentally is very difficult.
7.To convert heat directly into electricity is still a problem.
5.To obtain accurate results the substance must be pure.
6.To prove this law experimentally you will have to make a lot of experiments.
7.To convert heat directly into electricity we must solve a number of problems.
8.To produce a fusion re- 8. To produce a fusion reaction a action will become posnumber of conditions must be satis-
sible. fied.
9.Not to fail in our experiment is important.
9.Not to fail in our experiment we tested the equipment.
10.To communicate is human. 10. To communicate people and computers use languages.
Exercise 2. Translate into Russian.
1.To do work is the capacity of energy.
2.To do work energy is required.
3.To give a true picture of the surrounding matter is the task of natural sciences.
4.To understand many complicated phenomena in terms of simple principles physicists have to develop theories.
5.To use computers in automatic control means to speed up the production process considerably.
6.To use today’s complex hardware efficiently you should develop equally complex software.
7.To carry out a program of such experiments is necessary.
8.To carry out a program of such experiments it is necessary to have a source of energetic particles.
9.To control thermonuclear reactions the scientists have to solve a number of problems.
10.To control thermonuclear reactions requires much effort.
11.To measure any quantity means to compare it with a similar quantity taken as the unit of measurement.
12.To measure the quantity they applied a complicated method.
13.Nowadays to control radioactive sources is of great importance.
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14.To control radioactive sources scientists are developing advanced technologies.
15.To test the above statement is not difficult at all and quite necessary.
16.To verify the theory they had to process a lot of experimental data.
17.To process experimental data physicists have to develop sophisticated programs.
18.In order to understand the unusual world of nanotechnology, you need to get an idea of the nanoscale.
2.to be + Infinitive (A-Predicative, B-Modal Predicate)
Patterns:
A. Our task is to solve this problem.
Нашезаданиесостоит(заключается) втом, чтобырешитьэтузадачу. B. The scientist is to solve this problem.
Ученый должен решить эту задачу.
Learn the words which are often used in Pattern A:
1)aim, purpose, object, objective, task – цель
2)method, approach, technique, procedure – метод
3)manner, way, fashion – способ, метод
4)action, function, effect – действие
Exercise 3. Translate. Compare the functions of the infinitive.
A.Predicative
1.The task is to change the prop- 1. erties of the material.
2. His idea is to develop a new |
2. |
technology. |
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3.The object of the experiment is 3. to improve the results.
4. The purpose of the station was to |
4. |
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supply the necessary energy. |
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5. |
The approach was to compare |
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the results. |
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Our aim is to study hard. |
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7.The aim is to protect the public 7. from radiation.
8. The function of NPPs is to pro- 8.
B. Part of Modal Predicate
The designer is to change the properties.
He is to develop a new technology.
The experiment is to improve the results.
This power station was to supply the necessary energy.
The scientist was to compare the results.
Every student is to study hard. The plant’s safety systems are to protect the public from radiation. The NPP is to provide clean
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vide clean and cheap energy. |
and cheap energy. |
9.The purpose of the nuclear reac- 9. Steam is to drive a steam turbine. tor is to produce steam.
10.The purpose is to use atom for |
10. Atom is to serve mankind. |
peace. |
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Exercise 4. Pay attention to the modal meaning of to be + Passive
Infinitive.
1.It is to be noted that ...
2.It is to be expected that ...
3.It is to be pointed out that ...
4.It is to be remembered that ...
5.It is to be understood that ...
6.It is to be stressed (emphasized) that ...
7.The temperature of the substance is to be determined.
8.This ore is to be found free.
9.This phenomenon is to be described in the next chapter.
10.The article is to be referred to.
11.Mention is to be made of the high boiling point of this liquid.
12.Use is to be made of this effect.
13.Care is to be taken to prevent a failure.
14.The tests are to be followed by data processing.
Exercise 5. Differentiate between the meanings of “to be”.
1.Their purpose was to determine the effect of X-rays.
2.Roentgen was to determine the effect of X-rays.
3.The aim of any research is to increase the possibilities of modern science.
4.One of the most important tasks at present is to upgrade nuclear power plants.
5.When a NPP is to be constructed the most suitable design is to be
found.
6.The plant’s safety systems are to protect the public even in a serious accident.
7.To ensure safety the core is to be contained in a reactor vessel.
8.The function of the scram system is to shut down the reactor rapidly in an accident.
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9.The very first thing you must do is to understand the statement of the problem.
10.The new apparatus was to control all the temperature changes during the experiment.
11.Close contact of the substances which are to react is always necessary.
12.It is to be expected that those elements will combine.
13.The object of the experiment was to find the connection between the secondary electrons and the primary beta-rays.
14.The difficulty will be to obtain the substance in question in its pure form.
15.The problem has been to analyze the substance under investigation.
16.This substance is to be found in nature.
17.Electronics is to be considered as an applied science.
18.One approach is to store radioactive waste in natural rocks underground.
19.Every atom is electrically neutral by instinct, that is, its tendency is to maintain its neutral balance at all times.
20.The goal for NPP operators is to reduce the risk of a serious accident.
3. Infinitive as an Attribute
Patterns:
The problem to be solved is of great importance.
Задача, которая должна быть решена, очень важна. Задача, которая будет решаться, очень важна.
He was the first (the second, the last) to solve this problem.
Он первым (вторым, последним) решил эту задачу.
Exercise 6. Translate. Pay attention to the infinitive as an attribute.
1.The properties of the substance to be studied are of interest.
2.The methods to be applied for our purpose are numerous.
3.The problems to be discussed at the conference are of great importance.
4.The physical processes to be described are particle scattering processes.
5.The investigation to be carried on is complicated.
6.The results to be expected from the experiment are of great importance.
7.The data to be referred to in the next chapter are quite reliable.
8.The lecture to be followed by an experiment is helpful to the students.
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9.The method to be followed is based upon some special properties of these rays.
10.There are some other properties to be considered.
11.There is only one signal to be detected.
12.There were many problems to be solved in order to understand these phenomena.
13.There are certain advantages to be gained by using this technique.
14.Newton was the first to solve the problem of gravitation.
15.Crookes was the first to recognize the cathode rays as negatively charged particles.
16.Dalton was the first to deduce scientifically an atomic theory from experimental data.
17.Rutherford was the first to propose a general theory of radioactive transformation.
18.Niels Bohr was the first to put forward a logical theory of atomic structure.
19.Neutrons serve as particles with which to bombard nuclei.
20.There is not very much experimental data on which to base a decision between these two possibilities.
21.The average distance to be travelled by a particle is called a mean free path.
22.Safety is the principal parameter to be analyzed.
Exercise 7. Compare Infinitive and Participle II as an attribute.
1. |
The experiment to be made ... |
– The experiment made ... |
2. |
The method to be used ... |
– The method used ... |
3.The technique to be applied ... – The technique applied ...
4.The formula to be derived ... – The formula derived ...
5.The reactor to be designed ... – The reactor designed ...
6.The type of the fuel to be used affects the design of the reactor.
7.The type of the computer used determines the character of the problem.
8.As one knows the useful work to be done by a machine is less than the total work done.
9.All the elements examined were uniform mixtures of isotopes.
10.The specimen to be examined must be placed inside the device.
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Exercise 8. Transform using the infinitive instead of the subordinate clause.
1)the theory which must be proved
2)the device which must be improved
3)the method which will be applied
4)the data which will be processed
5)the device which will be installed
6)the signal which must be detected
7)the results which will be obtained
8)the phenomenon which will be studied
9)the problem which will be referred to
10)the problem which must be dealt with
11)the problem which will be spoken about
12)the theory which must be followed by practice
13)the procedure that must be followed
III.Infinitive Complexes
Complex Object
Patterns:
We know the device to function properly.
Мы знаем, что прибор работает хорошо. The engineer wanted us to see the new engine.
Инженер хотел, чтобы мы посмотрели новый двигатель. We often watched him work in the lab.
Мычасто наблюдали за тем, каконработаетвлаборатории. Scientists make electronic machines solve complicated problems.
Ученыезаставляютэлектронныемашинырешатьсложныезадачи.
Learn the following verbs
1) to assume to suppose
to believe – полагать, считать to expect
to consider
to think – думать to know – знать
to find – полагать, находить to show – показывать
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to prove – доказывать |
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2) |
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to want – хотеть |
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I would like – мне бы хотелось |
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3) |
to feel – чувствовать |
These verbs require an infinitive |
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to hear – слышать |
without “to”. |
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to see – видеть |
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to watch – наблюдать |
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to notice – замечать |
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4) |
to permit |
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to enable |
– позволять |
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to allow |
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5) |
to make |
an infinitive without “to” |
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to cause |
– заставлять |
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to force |
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Note 1. |
Pay attention to the perfect infinitive. |
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We believe them to have completed the experiment. |
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Мы полагаем, что они завершили эксперимент. |
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Note 2. |
Some verbs |
change their meaning when used with |
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Complex Object. e.g.
1. We consider an important problem.
Мы рассматриваем важную проблему. We consider the problem to be important.
Мы считаем, что проблема важна. 2. This force causes motion.
Эта сила вызывает движение.
This force causes the electrons to move.
Эта сила заставляет электроны двигаться.
Exercise 9. Compare: |
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Object |
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Complex Object |
1. |
I want to help you. |
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I want you to help me. |
2. |
I would like to take part in |
2. |
I would like everybody to take |
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this work. |
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part in this work. |
3. |
The scientist expected to ob- |
3. |
The scientist expected his assistant |
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tain some new data. |
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to obtain some new data. |
4. |
I want to explain these phe- |
4. |
I want you to explain these phe- |
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nomena. |
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nomena. |
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