Metonymy

Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object upon contiguity of the two objects. Contiguity may be between

• the contents and the container: Here you can have your dinner at 10$ a plate

• the author and his/her work: Have you ever read Byron and Shelly in the original?

• the implement and the action performed with the implement: The sword is the worst argument in the situation like that

• the material and the product from this material

• the person and his/her things or clothes: Blue suits grinned

• the person and his facial features, parts of his/her body or human typical characteristics

Semantically, metonymy is divided into lexical and contextual.

• Lexical metonymy is fixed in dictionaries as a unit of language and belongs to the language-as-a-system

• Contextual metonymy is individual and expressive. It is used in belletristic fiction and belongs to the language-in- action.

The communicative function of the metonymy is to create images and make speech economic.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy based on the transference of the name of one object to the other upon quantitative relations. These quantitative relations distinguish two types of synecdoche. The first type is naming the whole object by mentioning part of it:

Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (in the same house)

The second type is using the name of the whole object to denote a part of it:

The museum spoke of the past (the exhibits)

The communicative function of the synecdoche is to create image and make speech economic

Periphrasis

Periphrasis is a variety of metonymy based upon the replacement of a name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.

Examples: Gold-black gold- this farm is a hotbed of oil!

Semantically, periphrasis may by logical and figurative.

• Logical periphrasis is based upon inherent properties of the object or phenomenon

Examples: weapon = instruments of destruction; women = fair sex; men = strong sex

• Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy:

To marry - to tie the knot

Money – root of evil

The communicative function of the periphrasis is to deepen our knowledge of the objective world.

Euphemism

Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis based upon the replacement of un­pleasantly sounding names by pleasantly sounding ones. Euphemisms are the expressive means most of which are registered in dictionaries.

According to the spheres of application euphemisms are classified into:

• Religious euphemisms: Devil – the dickens, old Nick

• Moral euphemisms: to die – to be gone, to depart, to go west, to pass away

• Medical euphemisms: cripple – invalid, insane – person of unsound mind

• Political euphemisms: starvation – undernourishment, revolution – tension

The communicative function of the euphemism is to make speech more polite, delicate

dysphemism

Dysphemism is a variety of periphrasis based upon the replacement of politely sounding names by rough, rude ones: to die – to kick the bucket, to urinate – to piss

The communicative function of the dysphemism is to express the speaker’s negative emotions such as irritation, hatred, scorn.

HYPERBOLE

Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon:

I beg a thousand pardons

Sam would give the world to see Dave again

The communicative function of the hyperbole is to mount the expressiveness of speech, to emphasize the emotional state of a teller, to create humorous effect.

MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon and is opposite in meaning to hyperbole. Meiosis may underline insignificance of such qualities as size, time, distance, etc:

There was a drop of water left in the bucket

He can do the job in a second

The communicative function of the meiosis is to make speech expressive and bright.

LITOTES

Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis. Litotes is a combination of the negative particle “not” and a word with a negative meaning or a negative prefix. Such a combination makes positive sense: not bad – good, not unlike – kind

The communicative function of the litotes is to extenuate (смягчить) positive qualities of object. It makes a statement delicate and diplomatic.

IRONY

Irony is the figure that is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire the meaning opposite to their primary language meanings.

The communicative function of the irony is to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, displeasure:

Cutting off chickens’ heads! Such a fascinating process to watch

Thank you very much for trumping my ace!

SIMILE

Simile is a figure of combination consisting in likening of two things or phenomena which belong to different classes.

Simile is a structure that consists of two elements: the subject and the object.

The formal indicator of relations between the compared things may be expressed by:

• The adverb like:

Paula is like a fairy

• The conjunction as:

Rosa was as beautiful as a flower

• The conjunction as if, as though:

Viola behaves worse as if she were a child

The communicative function of the simile is to make speech expressive.

! Simile should not be confused with a logical comparison which is devoid of any stylistic meaning. A logical comparison consists in likening of two things which belong to the same class:

John is older than Sam

John behaves like his father