31 Lexical stylistic devices Metaphor

Metaphor is transference of the name or qualities of one object to another object upon similarity of the two objects. As a result of this transference two types of metaphor are distinguished: nominational metaphor and cognitive metaphor.

• Nominational metaphor is the result of transference of a name of one object to the other object: It is an old city but it is a rough diamond

• Cognitive metaphor is the result of transference of qualities of one object to the other object: When he saw her joy sprang into his heart

Semantically, metaphor may be trite and imaginative.

• Trite metaphors are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language and belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper: Her cup of sufferings was filled up.

• Imaginative metaphors are occasional, individual, expressive and bright. They are commonly used in speech and belletristic literature and belong to the language-in-action: Her eyes were pools of still waters.

Structurally, metaphors are divided into simple and prolonged.

• Simple metaphors consist of a word or a word combination: A good book is the best of friend.

• Prolonged metaphors are a sequence of simple metaphors which unfold the meaning of the first, initial metaphor. Prolonged metaphors appear when a metaphorical word makes other words in the sentence or paragraph realize their metaphorical meaning.

The communicative function of metaphor is to create images. Its main purpose is esthetic. Its natural sphere of use is poetry and elevated style.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is a variety of metaphor based on the transference of a proper name to a common name (A) or a common name to the proper name (B).

• Antonomasia which is based on the transference of a proper name to a common name is typical for everyday speech and is often a cliché used to characterize a person: nosy Parker, Don Quixote

• Antonomasia based on the transference of a common name to the proper name is frequent for fiction. It may foreground a character’s ethical features, behavior, psychological features: Miss Careless

The communicative function of the antonomasia is to create a humorous effect

Personification

Personification is a variety of metaphor based on the transference of qualities of animate beings to inanimate or abstract objects.

The communicative function of the personification is to create an aesthetic effect.

Allegory

Allegory is a variety of metaphor based on the transference of human qualities to animals and inanimate objects. It is realized on the level of the text.

The communicative function of the allegory is to foreground the poetic expressiveness of the text.

Epithet

Epithet is a metaphor based on the transference of qualities of one object to another object.

Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: associated еріthets and unassociated epithets.

• Associated epithets point out typical features of the objects which they describe. Their use with certain nouns has become traditional and they belong to language-system elements:

If forest, then-dark; if attention, then-careful; if sea, then-salty; if tears, then-bitter

• Unassociated epithets describe such qualities to objects which are not inherent in them. They are created in the process of communication and belong to the language-in-action: voiceless sands, helpless loneliness, blank face.

Structurally, epithets are divided into simple, compound, phrasal and clausal.

• Simple epithets are one-word epithets: magnificent sight, tremendous pressure

• Compound epithets are two-word constructions: mischief-making pupil, heart-burning desire

• Phrasal epithets are expressed by word-combinations of quotation type: go-to-devil request, do-it-yourself command

• Clausal epithets are expressed by sentences: I- want- to- do- it feeling, I-did-it-myself statement

The communicative function of the epithet is to create images.