1. Remember if these juridical noun-terms from Chapter 21 are countable, uncountable or both.

countable	uncountable	Both
ACT	CONFIDENCE	ABUSE
ALLEGATION	CUSTODY	ADOPTION
CASE	EVIDENCE	AGREEMENT
CHECKLIST	GUILT	ASSAULT
CONTRACT	INTIMIDATION	CAUTION
JURY	PERMISSION	CONSIDERATION
	PROBATION	CONSISTENCY
	WELFARE	CONTACT
		CONVICTION
		COURT
		CRIME
		DEBATE
		DANGER
		DEFENCE
		DETENTION
		JUSTICE
		MAJORITY
		MURDER
		OFFENCE
		ORDER
		PRISON
		PROSECUTION
		PUNISHMENT
		STATUS
		TREATMENT
		TRIAL
		WARNING
		WRONG

2. Give your own examples illustrating the fact that the nouns from the 3d column can be both countable and uncountable.

E.G. He visits his Dad in prison every week.

The two men were arrested only a week after they were released from prison.

They live opposite the prison. (say 'the prison' when you refer to a particular building)

The farm felt like a prison for her.

OPTIONAL grammar exercises for advanced-level groups

I. At first read the definitions of the nouns that can be both countable and uncountable. Then analyse the examples of their usage in the context in Chapter 21. Their definitions are taken from ‘Longman Exams Coach’ [Pearson, Longman] or “Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary’ [Third Edition].

ABUSE – 1. [plural, U] cruel or violent treatment of someone: ▪ several cases of child abuse; ▪ An independent committee will look into alleged human rights abuses.; 2. [U and C] the use of sth in a way that it should not be used: ▪ A self-monitoring tax system is clearly open to abuse.

…any kind of harmful conduct counts as ‘child abuse’. (p. 282)

…known as cases of ‘child abuse’… (p. 282)

…if the person accused of abuse or ill-treatment… (p. 283)

ADOPTION – 1. [U and C] the act or process of adopting a child: ▪ She decided to put the baby up for adoption.

Strengthen the safeguards for adoption by improving the legal controls on inter-country adoption, arranging adoptions and advertising children for adoption. (p. 288)

…but for whom adoption is not the most suitable option. (p. 288)

AGREEMENT – 1. [C] an arrangement or promise to do sth, made by two or more people, companies, organizations etc: ▪ They had an agreement that she would give them any leftover food from her shop.; 2. [U] when people have the same opinion as each other: ▪ It is easier for two parties to reach agreement than for three.; 3. [U] when someone says yes to an idea, plan, suggestion etc

…the majority of countries signed an agreement… (p. 289)

ASSAULT – 1. [U and C] the crime of physically attacking someone: ▪ He was jailed for assault.; ▪ sexual assaults on women

CAUTION – 1. [U] the quality of being very careful to avoid danger or risks: We must proceed with extreme caution.; 2. [C] a warning or piece of advice telling you to be careful: Although pleased, Henson added a caution that the team still has a long way to go.; 4. [U and C] British English a spoken official warning given to someone who has been arrested or who has done sth wrong that is not a serious crime: ▪ He was let off with a caution.

…may give a formal caution. (p. 279)

Formal cautions are only given where… (p. 279)

If a caution is administered… (p. 279)

Sometimes when accepting a caution… (p. 279)

CONSIDERATION – 1. [U] formal careful thought and attention, especially before making an official or important decision: ▪ After due consideration, I have decided to tender my resignation.; 3. [C] a fact that you think about when you are making a decision, synonym factor: ▪ Political rather than economic considerations influenced the location of the new factory.

due/serious/proper etc consideration

CONSIDERATION - in contract law, an inducement given to enter into a contract that is sufficient to render the promise enforceable in the courts [Encyclopædia Britannica Library]

…the child’s welfare shall be the court’s paramount consideration. (p. 277)

If not, serious consideration will then be given… (p. 279)

The judge and lawyers will all treat her with consideration. (p. 286)

That’s the child’s welfare shall be the paramount consideration. (p. 286)

CONSISTENCY – plural consistencies [U and C] 1. the quality of always being the same, doing things in the same way, having the same standards etc - used to show approval: ▪ Customers demand consistency and reliability.; ▪ Consumer groups are demanding greater consistency in the labelling of food products.; 2. SUBSTANCE [C or U] the physical nature of a substance, especially a thick liquid, for example by being thick or thin, smooth or lumpy.

…in order to test the consistency of his or her account. (p. 284)

CONTACT – 1. communication [U] communication with a person, organization, country etc: ▪ There is very little contact between the two tribes.; 2. touch [U] when two people or things touch each other: ▪ Children need physical contact with a caring adult.; 3. experience [U] when you meet someone or experience a particular kind of thing: ▪ Pat's job brings her into contact with the problems people face when they retire.; 4. person [C; usually plural] a person you know who may be able to help or advise you: ▪ He has a lot of contacts in the media.

Who should have contact with the child… (p. 287)

CONVICTION – 1. [C] a very strong belief or opinion: ▪ The Dotens have a deep conviction that marriage is for life.; 2. [U] the feeling of being sure about sth and having no doubts: ▪ He was able to say with conviction that he had changed.; 3. [U and C] a decision in a court of law that someone is guilty of a crime, or the process of proving that someone is guilty: ▪ They had no previous convictions.

… did not appeal against their conviction in England… (p. 280)

COURT – 1. for deciding about a legal case [U and C] the place where a trial is held, or the people there, especially the judge and the jury who examine the evidence and decide whether someone is guilty or not guilty: ▪ Four people will appear in court today, charged with fraud.

When a court determines any question with respect to… (p. 277)

…the young person is not taken to court (p. 279)

…to prosecuting the young person in court (p. 279)

…to bring him or her before a court (p. 279)

…will have to appear before a youth court (p. 279)

…the young person’s parents should attend court (p. 280)

…members of the general public are not allowed to sit in court (p. 280)

…the public and the press are allowed into court (p. 280)

…if he or she was tried by a youth court (p. 280)

They therefore went to court… (p. 281)

When it comes to proceedings in court… (p. 283)

…and that assists them to deal with these cases sensitively in court (p. 283)

If children have to go to court… (p. 284)

…which will help him or her to understand what happens at court. (p. 284)

…to worry children about going to court… (p. 284)

…and cope with the experience in court. (p. 284)

Going to court will not be… (p. 284)

The court will order that… (p. 284)

They do not go into court at all, but give evidence to everyone who is in court (including the defendant) by means of a video-link between their room and the court. (p. 284)

If the man is arrested and prosecuted the child will be taken to court by her parent(s)… (p. 284)

…that have worried some children about going to court. (p. 285)

People shouting at me in court (p. 285)

Not understanding what I am supposed to do at court (p. 285)

…by the people in court. (p. 286)

…everyone else involved in the case will remain in court. (p. 286)

The people in court will be able to see her on television screens in the court. (p. 286)

…the rest of evidence in the case will be heard in open court as usual. (p. 286)

…but the judge must then tell the parties in court what the child has said… (p. 288)

CRIME – 1. [U] illegal activities in general: ▪ We moved here because there was very little crime.; 2. [C] an illegal action, which can be punished by law: ▪ Rape is a very serious crime.

to commit a crime (p. 278)

They could not therefore be convicted of crime… (p. 278)

…who are suspected of committing crime… (p. 279)

when police who are investigating a crime have reason… (p. 279)

the need for innocent people to be protected from serious crime… (p. 280)

If a young person is charged with a very serious crime… (p. 280)

DEBATE – 1. [U and C] discussion of a particular subject that often continues for a long time and in which people express different opinions: ▪ There has been widespread public debate over the introduction of genetically modified food. ▪ Her testimony sparked a national debate on sexual harassment.

There has been much debate about… (p. 282)

DEFENCE BrE - defense AmE - 1. protection a) [U] the act of protecting sth or someone from attack: ▪ In Britain, the defence of the country has historically been left to the navy.; b) [C] sth that can be used to protect sth or someone from attack: ▪ The area's flood defences need repair.; 2. military a) [U] all the systems, people, materials etc that a country uses to protect itself from attack: ▪ calls for a national debate on defence; b) defences BrE, defenses AmE [plural] all the armies, weapons, structures etc that are available to defend a place: ▪ The invading army easily overcame the town's defences.; 4. in a law court a) [C] the things that are said in a court of law to prove that someone is not guilty of a crime: ▪ Major has a good defence and believes he will win the case.; b) the defence all the lawyers who try to prove in a court of law that someone is not guilty of a crime: ▪ The defense called only one witness.

DANGER – 1. [U] the possibility that someone or something will be harmed, destroyed, or killed; 2. [U and C] the possibility that sth bad will happen: ▪ There is a danger that museums will attempt to entertain rather than educate.; 3. [C] sth or someone that may harm or kill you: ▪ The wreck is a danger to other ships.

by separating them from anyone who presents as a danger… (p. 282)

DETENTION – 1. [U] the state of being kept in prison; 2. [U and C] a punishment in which children who have behaved badly are forced to stay at school for a short time after the others have gone home

especially after their release from detention (p. 281)

EDUCATION – 1. [singular, U] the process of teaching and learning, usually at school, college, or university: ▪ She also hopes her children will get a good education.; 2. [U] the teaching of a particular subject: health/sex education; 3. [U] the institutions and people involved with teaching: ▪ the local education authority; 4. [singular] an interesting experience which has taught you sth - often used humorously: ▪ Having Jimmy to stay has been quite an education!

Children should have a free education… (p. 289)

EXPERIENCE – 1. knowledge/skill [U] knowledge or skill that you gain from doing a job or activity, or the process of doing this: ▪ You've got a lot of experience of lecturing.; 2. knowledge of life [U] knowledge that you gain about life and the world by being in different situations and meeting different people, or the process of gaining this: ▪ Being a parent isn't easy, as I know from experience.; 3. sth that happens [C] sth that happens to you or sth you do, especially when this has an effect on what you feel or think: ▪ childhood experiences

The police officers and social workers in these teams have great experience in dealing with problems of this type. (p. 283)

Going to court will not be a pleasant experience… (p. 284)

JUSTICE – 1. system of judgement [U] the system by which people are judged in courts of law and criminals are punished: ▪ The killers will be brought to justice (=caught and punished).; 2. [U] fairness in the way people are treated: ▪ His people came to him, demanding justice.; 3. [U] the quality of being right and deserving fair treatment: ▪ No one doubts the justice of our cause.; 7. judge [C] also Justice: a) American English a judge in a law court; b) British English the title of a judge in the High Court

…and justices who sit in this court… (p. 279)

…the justices will have to decide what action to take. (p. 280)

… the Lord Chief Justice… (p. 281)

This is because justice must be seen to be done… (p. 288)

LANGUAGE – 1. English/French/Arabic etc [U and C] a system of communication by written or spoken words, which is used by the people of a particular country or area: ▪ How many languages do you speak?; 2. communication [U] the use of written or spoken words to communicate: ▪ the differences between spoken and written language

This amounts to little more than telling them in stern language not to misbehave… (p. 279)

LIFE – 1. [U and C] the period of time when someone is alive

They felt that her opportunities to succeed in life would be better in Europe. (p. 282)

MAJORITY – plural majorities 1. most people or things [singular also + plural verb British English] most of the people or things in a group: ▪ The majority of students find it quite hard to live on the amount of money they get.; 2. most votes [C] if one person or group wins a majority in an election, they win more votes than other people or groups: ▪ He won by a majority of 500.; 5. becoming an adult [U] British English law the age when someone legally becomes an adult: ▪ He became a partner in the family firm on reaching his majority.

…in this country the age of majority, that is, the age at which… (p. 277)

MURDER – 1. [U and C] the crime of deliberately killing someone: ▪ He was found guilty of attempted murder (=the crime of trying to kill someone).; ▪ the scene of a mass murder (=the killing of a large number of people)

…a very serious crime such as murder or manslaughter… (p. 280)

…were convicted of murder… (p. 282)

OFFENCE – 1. [C] an illegal action or a crime: ▪ The possession of stolen property is a criminal offence.; 2. [U] when you offend or upset someone by sth you do or say: ▪ The problem was how to say 'no' to her without causing offence.; 5. [U] formal the act of attacking: ▪ the weapon of offence used during the attack

…that young persons have committed offences… (p. 279)

If a person accused of an offence is arrested… (p. 283)

ORDER – 2. arrangement [U and C] the way that things or events are arranged in relation to each other, for example showing whether sth is first, second, third etc: ▪ Students learn the verbs in order of difficulty.; 3. instruction [C; usually plural] an instruction to do sth that is given by someone in authority: an/the order to do sth; ▪ I'm not taking orders from him!; 4. controlled situation [U] a situation in which rules are obeyed and authority is respected: ▪ the breakdown of law and order; 5. well-organized state [U] a situation in which everything is controlled, well organized, and correctly arranged: ▪ You need to put your financial affairs in order.; 6. for food or drink [C] a) a request for food or drink in a restaurant or bar:

…the court will also make a supervision order… (p. 287)

If the court makes any order which… (p. 287)

…and if necessary the court will make new orders. (p. 287)

PRISON – 1. [U and C] a building where people are kept as a punishment for a crime, or while they are waiting to go to court for their trial; synonym jail

being sent to prison myself (p. 285)

the defendant being sent to prison (p. 285)

PROSECUTION – 1. [U and C] when a charge is made against someone for a crime, or when someone is judged for a crime in a court of law: ▪ a criminal prosecution; ▪ Walters could face prosecution for his role in the robbery.; 2. the prosecution the lawyers who try to prove in a court of law that someone is guilty of a crime: ▪ the chief witness for the prosecution

PUNISHMENT – 1. [U and C] sth that is done in order to punish someone, or the act of punishing them: ▪ I was sent to bed as a punishment.

…we looked at the main punishments that are available… (p. 278)

but although corporal punishment has now been outlawed in schools… (p. 282)

REASON – 1. cause [C] why someone decides to do sth, or the cause or explanation for sth that happens: ▪ People give different reasons for wanting to change jobs.; 2. good or fair [U] a fact that makes it right or fair for someone to do sth: ▪ She has reason to feel guilty.

Grammar note: Reason is never followed by 'of' or 'because'. You can talk about the reason for sth or the reason that/why sth happens: ▪ Can you explain the reasons for (NOT reasons of) your decision?

When police who are investigating a crime have reason to believe that… (p. 279)

…or there is reason to believe… (p. 286)

SKILL - [U and C] an ability to do sth well, especially because you have learned and practised it ➔ talent: ▪ Students need to possess certain basic skills by the time they finish school.

The interviewing of young children in these circumstances calls for considerable skill. (p. 283)

STATUS – 1. [U and C] the official legal position or condition of a person, group, country etc ➔ standing: ▪ What is your marital status (=are you married or not)?

…children cannot acquire full legal status… (p. 277)

TREATMENT – 1. medical [U and C] sth that is done to cure someone who is injured or ill; 2. behaviour towards sb [U] a particular way of behaving towards someone or of dealing with them

the trial had not amounted to inhuman or degrading treatment (p. 281)

by his step-father amounted to ‘inhuman or degrading treatment’… (p. 282)

TRIAL – 1. court [U and C] a legal process in which a judge and often a jury in a court of law examine information to decide whether someone is guilty of a crime

the justices will hold a trial (p. 279)

the names of those on trial should not be published (p. 280)

the two boys had been denied a fair trial (p. 280)

…to the Crown Court for trial… (p. 280)

…to the youth court for trial. (p. 280)

Some young defendants accused of committing serious crimes might be very young and very immature when standing trial in the Crown Court. (p. 281)

The purpose of such trial was… (p. 281)

WARNING – 1. [U and C] sth, especially a statement, that tells you that sth bad, dangerous, or annoying might happen so that you can be ready or avoid it: The antibody test can serve as an early warning of viral infection.; 2. [C] a statement telling someone that if they continue to behave in an unsatisfactory way, they will be punished: The Surrey team were given a warning last year for repeated offences.

…give them an informal warning. (p. 279)

…a record is kept that a warning has been given. (p. 279)

WRONG noun – 1. [U] behaviour that is not morally right: Those who do wrong should be punished.; 2. [C] an action, judgment, or situation that is unfair ➔ injustice: The black population suffered countless wrongs at the hands of a racist regime.

…it could be shown that they knew that what they were doing was seriously wrong. (p. 278)