Is defined as an active and interaction pertinent to

mutual/reciprocal exchange. infant-parent interaction were

Social interaction may involve not. The definition selected

aspects of the environment, was based on integration of

but must include overt definitions for the following

behavior directed to the terms: interaction, social,

dyed partner by each dyed and social interaction.

member. The presence or absence of

several interactional

Examples construct is contingent

on the presence of social

Example: An infant and interaction. The smallest

caregiver look and smile at unit of social interaction

each other. may be mutual eye contact;

Nonexample: A caregiver looks however, social interaction

and smiles at an infant as may readily occur without

the infant plays. eye contact.

Parent Response Contingency

Definition: The parent The importance of parent

starts, stops, or changes contingent responsivity has

his or her behavior within been well documented.

1 second in response to the Definitions from multiple

infant's focus of attention, sources were considered as

change of emotional the construct of response

state, or overt behavior. contingency was developed.

Roth's (1987) research

Examples suggesting "delays in

response of greater than

Example: After the infant 1 second may interfere with

coos, the caregiver immediately learning" (p. 152), especially

smiles and imitates the for preverbal infants, played

infant's coos. a pivotal role in definition

Nonexample: After the infant development. This construct is

coos, the caregiver continues coded as present whenever the

to look at the infant, but does parent's behavior is compati-

not respond to the infant's ble with the definitional cri-

coos. teria; however, episodes of

Negative Example: The parent of response contingency that are

2-month-old infant considered incompatible

props a bottle on a pillow to with optimal infant develop-

feed the infant. When the ment by the coder are circled

bottle falls, the caregiver on the coding form and descri-

laughs. "Too bad you dropped bed in the comment section

your bottle. You should along with the response of

have held it," and the infant. For analysis and

moves the bottle away from intervention planning, levels

the crying infant. (Code as) of response contingency are

adjusted for the occurrence of

negative response contingency.

Construct Selected references

Dyadic Social Interaction

Odom, 1983

Vibbert & Bornstein,

Definition: Social interaction 1989

is defined as an active and Wetherby, Cain, Yonclas,

mutual/reciprocal exchange. & Walker, 1988

Social interaction may involve Wetherby, Yonclas, &

aspects of the environment, Bryan, 1989

but must include overt

behavior directed to the

dyed partner by each dyed

member.

Examples

Example: An infant and

caregiver look and smile at

each other.

Nonexample: A caregiver looks

and smiles at an infant as

the infant plays.

Parent Response Contingency

Definition: The parent Crittenden & Bonvillian,

starts, stops, or changes 1984

his or her behavior within Chappell & Sander, 1979

1 second in response to the Isabella, Belsky, &

infant's focus of attention, von Eye, 1989

change of emotional Lewis, 1978

state, or overt behavior. Mahoney, Fors, & Wood,

1990

Examples Roth, 1987

Soumi, 1981

Example: After the infant Tannock, 1988

coos, the caregiver immediately Vibbert & Bornstein, 1989

smiles and imitates the Watson, 1979

infant's coos.

Nonexample: After the infant

coos, the caregiver continues

to look at the infant, but does

not respond to the infant's

coos.

Negative Example: The parent of

a hungry 2-month-old infant

props a bottle on a pillow to

feed the infant. When the

bottle falls, the caregiver

laughs. "Too bad you dropped

your bottle. You should

have held it," and

moves the bottle away from

the crying infant. (Code as)

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Parent Directiveness

Research investigating the

impact of parent

directiveness

Definition: The parent on child development has

attempts to lead the pace, resulted in seemingly

content, and/or form of the conflicting conclusions.

infant's behavior. Mahoney (1985) suggested

that parent directiveness

Examples is inversely related to infant

mental development. Parent

Example: The caregiver says, control may constrict infant

"Put them on your arm," to opportunity to explore topics

an infant who is playing of infant interest and may

have with beads. a long-term detrimental effect

Nonexample: The caregiver says on development. Other

"Pretty beads" to an infant literature suggests that

who is playing with beads. parents directiveness

provides a

structure or scaffold that

allows infants to expand their

information base and achieve

a higher level of play. These

seemingly conflicting

conclusions suggest

subcomponents of parent

directive behaviors, some of

which are supportive of

optimal infant development

whereas others may stifle

infant development.

Consequently, definitions

of directiveness and

intrusiveness were developed

to facilitate a distinction

between subcomponents of

directiveness. Co-occurrence

of parent directiveness with

parent facilitation and/or

infant participation in

social interaction may enable

investigation of other

subtypes of directiveness.

Construct Selected references

Parent Directiveness

Mahoney, 1985

Mahoney, Fors, & Wood,

Definition: The parent 1990

attempts to lead the pace, Rosenberg & Robinson,

content, and/or form of the 1988

infant's behavior. Tannock, 1988

Vibbert & Bornstein,

Examples 1989

Example: The caregiver says,

"Put them on your arm," to

an infant who is playing

with beads.

Nonexample: The caregiver says

"Pretty beads" to an infant

who is playing with beads.

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Parent Intrusiveness

Infant behavior depicts a

taxonomy of engagement and

Definition: The infant's disengagement cues.

focus of attention is broken Engagement cues such as

or the infant engages in attentive gaze, mutual

negative behavior/social gaze, facing gaze, smiling,

detachment that is preceded and reaching behavior

by parent directiveness. indicate infant receptivity

for interaction with their

Examples social or physical

environment. Disengagement

Example: The caregiver offers cues help the infant control

a rattle to an infant who is or regulate the timing and

playing with beads, breaking amount of interaction and

the infant's attention to the thereby prevent sensory

beads. overload. Disengagement

Nonexample: The caregiver cues may include breaks in

observes an infant who is attention, gaze aversion, eye

playing with beads. clinching, and distancing.

When parents do not respect

infant disengagement cues,

infant ability to regulate

behavioral state organization

and sensory input is

compromised, as is infant

attachment security.

Furthermore, infants have

lost an opportunity to learn

successful regulation of

internal state organization,

successful regulation of the

external world, and effective

communication. Persistent

intrusive interactive

patterns may teach infants

that their natural facial

expressions and communicative

attempts are irrelevant or

may further complicate their

sensory overload. Learned

helplessness can be seen as

a natural consequence of

persistent interactive

patterns of this nature.

Intrusiveness has been

defined as a subset of parent

directiveness indicated by

infant attentional overload

or shutdown and/or

interference with infant

behavioral state

organization. Because

intrusiveness is

infant-specific, the

construct is identified by

behavioral signals from the

infant rather than behaviors

of the parent.

Construct Selected references

Parent Intrusiveness

Abramson, Sleigman &

Teasdale, 1978

Barnard & Kelly, 1990

Definition: The infant's Field, 1981

focus of attention is broken Helm, 1989

or the infant engages in Isabella, Belsky, &

negative behavior/social von Eye, 1989

detachment that is preceded Landry, Chapieski, &

by parent directiveness. Schmidt, 1986

Mahoney, Fors, & Wood,

Examples 1990

Maurer & Sherrod, 1987

Example: The caregiver offers Stern, 1977

a rattle to an infant who is Tannock, 1988

playing with beads, breaking

the infant's attention to the

beads.

Nonexample: The caregiver

observes an infant who is

playing with beads.

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Parent Facilitation

This construct is coded

present when the parent

Definition: The parent allows engages in behaviors that

for or follows the infant's facilitate infant-selected

attention behavior and allows attention. A growing body

the infant's withdrawal of literature documents

behavior during the entire variation in the effects of

coding segment. parent attempts to follow,

direct, and/or redirect

Examples infant focus of attention.

Accumulating evidence

Example: The caregiver suggests parental attempts

observes the infant patting to expand infant-selected

an object, and the caregiver focus of attention

joins in the play by patting facilitates infant learning,

a similar object. whereas parental attempts

Nonexample: The caregiver to redirect infant attention

observes the infant patting an to parent selected topics

object, and the caregiver says, seem to have a detrimental

"Let's read a book," as the impact on infant outcomes.

caregiver moves the infant's Evidence suggesting that

hands to a book. sub-types of parental

attention focusing behaviors

have differential impacts on

infant outcomes must be

considered when developing

infant-parent interactive

interventions.

The proposed definition of

parent facilitation is based

on current attention and

integrative overload

literature. The parent

facilitation definition, in

conjunction with the parent

directiveness construct,

allows observers to make

distinctions between parent

behavior that facilitates

infant attention, directs

infant attention, and is both

directive and facilitative

of infant attention.

Construct Selected references

Parent Facilitation

Bakeman & Adamson, 1984

Belsky, Goode, & Most, 1980

Definition: The parent allows Field, 1981

for or follows the infant's Landry & Chapieski, 1989

attention behavior and allows Landry & Chapieski, 1990

the infant's withdrawal Landry, Chapieski, &

behavior during the entire Schmidt, 1986

coding segment. Parrinello & Ruff, 1988

Ruddy & Bornstein, 1982

Examples Stern, 1977

Tamis-LeMonda &

Example: The caregiver Bornstein, 1989

observes the infant patting Tannock, 1988

an object, and the caregiver Vibbert & Bornstein, 1989

joins in the play by patting Yarrow, MacTurk,

a similar object. Vietze, McCarthy,

Nonexample: The caregiver Klein, McQuiston, 1984

observes the infant patting an

object, and the caregiver says,

"Let's read a book," as the

caregiver moves the infant's

hands to a book.

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Infant Initiation

Infant-initiated social

interaction may consist of

Definition: Following a verbal, gestural, physical,

3-second pause in social or proximal seeking behavior.

interaction and with no adult Persistence in infant

prompt, the infant initiates initiated social interaction

or reinitiates social has been conceptually

interaction. linked to developing

intentional communication

Examples as well as degree and type

of disability. Because

Example: Following a infants with developmental

3-second pause in social delays and handicapping

interaction, the infant conditions tend to initiate

smiles and gives the social interaction less

caregiver a kiss which the frequently than their

caregiver returns. normally developing peers

Nonexample: Following a and degree of infant

3-second pause in social initiation seems to

interaction, the infant influence parent

reaches for a new toy and interaction style,

begins to examine the toy. recommendations to

encourage infant

initiations have been

considered an element of

best practice in

infant-parent interaction

intervention. The

definition of infant

initiation is based on the

infant's active role in

the establishment of

social interaction.

Infant Participation

Infant facial expression

serves as a point of

Definition: The infant reference for this

engages in either positive construct. Infant facial

or neutral social expression typically

interaction. associated with the

expression of negative

Examples affect (e.g., frowning,

crying, turning away, etc.)

Example: The infant offers indicates the absence of

the caregiver a toy which positive or neutral social

the caregiver takes. interaction. The level and

Nonexample: The caregiver type of infant participation

takes a toy from the infant in social interaction has

and the infant subsequently been described as a factor

cries. influencing the parent's

role in the interaction

process. Consequently,

co-occurrences of the

constructs of infant

participation and parent

directiveness in the absence

of parent intrusiveness

are considered to be an

important index in

determining the nature of

infant-parent social

interaction.

Construct Selected references

Infant Initiation

Harding, 1984

Rosenberg & Robinson,

1988

Definition: Following a Salisbury, Britzman, &

3-second pause in social Kang, 1989

interaction and with no adult Scoville, 1984

prompt, the infant initiates Tannock, 1988

or reinitiates social Vibbert & Bornstein, 1989

interaction. Wetherby, Cain, Yonclas,

& Walker, 1988

Examples Wetherby, Yonclas, &

Bryan, 1989

Example: Following a

3-second pause in social

interaction, the infant

smiles and gives the

caregiver a kiss which the

caregiver returns.

Nonexample: Following a

3-second pause in social

interaction, the infant

reaches for a new toy and

begins to examine the toy.

Infant Participation

Mahoney, Fors, & Wood,

1990

Definition: The infant Tannock, 1988

engages in either positive

or neutral social

interaction.

Examples

Example: The infant offers

the caregiver a toy which

the caregiver takes.

Nonexample: The caregiver

takes a toy from the infant

and the infant subsequently

cries.

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Infant Signal Clarity

The definition selected for

infant signal clarity was

Definition: The infant engages based on Yoder's (1987)

in clear signaling. A clear operationalization of

signal is any overt behavior Goldberg's (1977) construct

that allows the coder to of infant readability. The

identify the focus of absence of this construct

attention and/or change in indicates a lack of clarity,

emotional state. not an absence of overt infant

behavior. The smallest unit

Examples constituting a clear infant

signal may be a 1-second

Example: The infant looks gaze that allows the

intently at a toy. examiner to identify the

Nonexample: The infant gazes focus of attention.

randomly around the room

without a focus of attention.

Infant Intentional Communicative Acts

Communicative intent is a

presumed mental process that

cannot be directly observed,

Definition: The infant but must be inferred from the

directs a motoric/vocal act immediate context. There

toward the dyed partner and appears to be a

waits for a response/persists context-specific developmental

in the communicative act progression of communicative

for 2 seconds or alternates intent ranging from

a gaze or gesture between participation in to

the dyed partner and initiation of social

an object/goal. interaction for specific

purposes. For the purpose

Examples of this code, multiple

definitions of communicative

Example: The infant looks intent were integrated to

at the caregiver, a bottle, select observable behavioral

and again at the caregiver sequences considered to be

as she says "ba-ba-ba" and indicative of communicative

reaches toward the bottle. intent. This

Nonexample: The infant operationalization extends

looks at a bottle and says early intentional behavior

" ba-ba-ba. " such as reaching in a bag to

obtain an object to

intentional communication of

a message to the dyed

partner.

Construct Selected references

Infant Signal Clarity

Goldberg, 1977

Yoder, 1987

Definition: The infant engages

in clear signaling. A clear

signal is any overt behavior

that allows the coder to

identify the focus of

attention and/or change in

emotional state.

Examples

Example: The infant looks

intently at a toy.

Nonexample: The infant gazes

randomly around the room

without a focus of attention.

Infant Intentional Communicative Acts

Bates, Camaioni, &

Volterra, 1975

Carpenter, Mastergeorge,

Definition: The infant & Coggins, 1983

directs a motoric/vocal act Chappell & Sander, 1979

toward the dyed partner and Coggins & Carpenter, 1981

waits for a response/persists Coggins, Olswang, &

in the communicative act Guthrie, 1987

for 2 seconds or alternates Harding, 1984

a gaze or gesture between Salisbury, Britzman, &

the dyed partner and Kang, 1989

an object/goal. Scoville, 1984

Sugarman-Bell, 1978

Examples Wetherby, Cain, Yonclas,

& Walker, 1988

Example: The infant looks Wetherby, Yonclas, &

at the caregiver, a bottle, Bryan, 1989

and again at the caregiver

as she says "ba-ba-ba" and

reaches toward the bottle.

Nonexample: The infant

looks at a bottle and says

" ba-ba-ba. "

Construct Rationale for inclusion

Dyadic Theme Continuity

If a theme is established

and either dyed member

Definition: The theme of continues the theme across

social interaction is the 15-second coding

carried over from the boundary, dyadic theme

previous segment. A theme continuity is coded as

is defined as three or more present. Mothers of

related simultaneous or children with delayed

turn-taking behaviors by communication skills

each dyed partner. have difficulty sustaining

social interaction with

Examples their children. Parent

continuation of

Example: The infant bangs child-initiated topics

a toy four times rapidly has been found to elicit

and the parent joins in more sophisticated levels

the play by banging a of child language than

similar toy three times in any other form of adult

one coding segment. The utterance type.

banging play continues Consequently, the extent

across 15-second time to which infant-parent

segment intervals. dyads establish and

Nonexample: The infant maintain a topic of

bangs a toy two times and interaction or a theme

the caregiver bangs twice across turn-taking

before they shift to a exchanges is considered a

different play routine. noteworthy measure of

interactive quality.

Construct Selected references

Dyadic Theme Continuity

Greenberg, 1980

Tannock, 1988

Definition: The theme of Yoder & Davies, 1990

social interaction is

carried over from the

previous segment. A theme

is defined as three or more

related simultaneous or

turn-taking behaviors by

each dyed partner.

Examples

Example: The infant bangs

a toy four times rapidly

and the parent joins in

the play by banging a

similar toy three times in

one coding segment. The

banging play continues

across 15-second time

segment intervals.

Nonexample: The infant

bangs a toy two times and

the caregiver bangs twice

before they shift to a

different play routine.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for 2 1/2 to 6 1/2 Age Group

Percentage of 15-Second Time Segments Coded

During a 5-Minute Observations Period

Construct Mean SD Range

Parent response contingency 40.40 22.35 5-95

Parent directiveness 76.25 21.55 20-100

Parent intrusiveness 25 22.85 0-85

Parent facilitation 35.65 27.7 0-95

Infant initiation 1.05 2.85 0-15

Infant participation 23.85 22.15 0-80

Infant signal clarity 73.70 20.55 25-100

Infant intentional 0 0 0

communicative acts

Dyadic theme continuity 0 0 0