5. The Phoneme as an oppositional unit of speech. Main trends in Phoneme theory.

The phoneme is an oppositional unit of sound. Phoneme => ideal, sound => material.

The phoneme is the least meaning-distinguishing speech unit. It can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs -> finding pairs of words, which differ only in one phoneme. (Fan / van). [Subminimal pair -> differ in more than one phoneme]. A minimal pair is discovered through a minimal set - a chain of words, which differ in one phoneme (fan / van / pan / ran / tan).

Views of the phoneme.

Mentalistic / psychological. The Phoneme - an ideal "mental image" or a target at which the speaker aims. Allophones - different materialisations of it. (IA Baudauin de Courtenay).

Functional. The Phoneme is the minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced sounds. Meaning differentiation is taken to be a defining characteristic of phoneme. This view gave rise to phonology. (N. Trubetskoy, L. Bloomfield, R. Jakobson, M. Halle).

Abstract. The Phoneme is essentially independent of the acoustic & physiological properties associated with them, that is of speech sounds. (L. Hjelmslev, HJUldall, K. Togby).

[These views of phoneme => idealistic]

Physical. The Phoneme is a family of related sound, which

1. show phonetic similarity to one another;

2. can't occur in one and the same phonetic context. (D. Jones, B. Bloch, G. Trager).

Materialistic. The most suitable for the purpose of teaching is conception by LVShcherba: the Phoneme is a dialectical unity of functional, materialistic and abstract aspects. 

6. Common features of consonants as opposed to vowels.

Articulatory differences b / n vowels, cons and sonorants depend on three articulatory criteria:

1. the presence / absence of an articulatory obstruction to the air stream in the larynx or in the supra-glottal cavities

2. the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension

3. the force of exhalation

=> Consonants = sounds in the production of which a) there is an articulatory obstruction to the air stream (complete, incomplete, the combination of the two / t ∫, d3 /, intermittent) b) muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction c) the exhaling force is rather strong

vowels = sounds in the production of which a) there is no articulatory obstruction to the air stream b) muscular tension is diffused more of less evenly throughout the supra-glottal part of the speech apparatus c) the exhaling force is rather weak

sonorants = sounds intermediate b / n cons & vow bec they have features common to both. The obstruction is complete / incomplete but not narrow enough to produce noise. Muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction, but the exhaling force is rather weak. / M, n, η, l, w, r, j / 

7. Common features of vowel as opposed to conconants.

We have six vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y) and 20 vowel sounds (in Br.E.) 12 monothongs, 8 dipthongs +5 tripthongs

Vowels = sounds articulated with no impediment to the airstream (the air passes freely through the vocal organs) + voice is created by the vibration of the vocal cords in the glottis + all vowels are produced by exhaling the air (egreesive airstream).

From the phonological point of view: vowels tend to occupy the middle position of the word, the middle of a syllable (contrary to consonants). All Eng.v. are oral (no nasal) = the soft palate is raised = the air passes freely through the mouth cavity.If v. are in a position close to nasals, the vowel "a" will be a nasalized allophone.