- •Alexander kamensky
- •4.5. Conclusions 93
- •5.7. Conclusions 108
- •7.8. Conclusions 163
- •8.7. Conclusions 202
- •9.6. Conclusions 205
- •9.2.2. Grammar 209
- •9.4. Aims of teaching reading in a secondary school 219
- •9.5. How to teach reading 224
- •9.6. Conclusions 233
- •Introduction
- •1.1. Reasons for learning languages
- •1.2. Success in language learning
- •1.2.1. Motivation
- •1.2.2. Extrinsic motivation
- •1.2.3. Intrinsic motivation
- •He teaches good pronunciation.
- •He explains clearly.
- •He speaks good English.
- •1.3. Motivational differences
- •1.3.1. Children
- •1.3.2. Adolescents
- •1.3.3. Adult beginners
- •1.3.4. Adult intermediate students
- •1.3.5. Adult advanced students
- •1.4. Conclusions
- •2. Areas of a native speaker knowledge
- •2.1. Pronunciation
- •2.1.1. Sounds
- •2.1.2. Stress
- •2.1.3. Intonation
- •2.2. Grammar
- •2.3. Vocabulary
- •2.4. Discourse
- •2.4.1. Appropriateness
- •2.4.1.1. Communicative competence
- •2.4.1.2. Interaction with context
- •2.4.1.3. Structuring discourse
- •2.4.2. Global communicative competence
- •2.5. Language skills
- •2.5.1. Skills and sub-skills
- •2.6. Conclusions
- •3. What a language student should learn
- •3.1. Pronunciation
- •3.1.1. The importance of listening
- •3.2. Grammar
- •3.2.1. The importance of language awareness
- •3.3. Vocabulary
- •3.3.1. Vocabulary in context
- •3.4. Discourse
- •3.4.1. Language functions
- •3.5. Skills
- •3.6. The syllabus
- •3.6.1. Structures and functions
- •3.6.2. Vocabulary
- •3.6.3. Situation, topic and task
- •3.6.4. The syllabus and student needs
- •3.7. Language varieties
- •3.8. Conclusions
- •4.1. Methods of language teaching
- •4.1.1. Traditional learning theories and approaches
- •4.1.1.1. Grammar-translation method
- •4.1.1.2. Direct method
- •4.1.2. Behaviourism: Audio-lingual method
- •4.1.3. Cognitivism
- •4.1.3.1. Structural approach
- •4.1.3.2. Structural-situational method
- •4.1.3.3. Situational syllabus
- •4.1.4. Communicative approach
- •4.1.5. Functional-notional courses
- •Functions and notions
- •4.1.6. Acquisition and learning
- •Intonation
- •4.1.7. Task-based learning
- •4.1.8. Humanistic approaches
- •4.1.9. Self-directed learning
- •4.1.10. Neuro-Linguistic Programming
- •4.2. Foreign language learning
- •4.3. Input and output
- •4.4. A balanced activities approach
- •4.5. Conclusions
- •5. Teaching the productive skills
- •5.1. The nature of communication
- •5.2. The information gap
- •5.3. The communication continuum
- •Communicative Activities
- •5.4. Stages in language learning/ teaching
- •5.4.1. Introducing new language
- •5.4.2. Practice
- •5.4.3. Communicative activities
- •5.4.4. The relationship between different stages
- •5.5. Integrating skills
- •5.6. Speaking and writing
- •5.7. Conclusions
- •6. Typology of exercises in teaching english
- •6.1. What is an exercise: Psychological and pedagogical background
- •6.1.1. Exercise as an item of teaching
- •6.1.2. Teaching curve
- •6.1.3. Structure of an exercise
- •Exercise
- •1. Instruction
- •2. Model
- •3. Control
- •6.2. Different approaches to the problem of classification of exercises
- •6.3. Criteria of classification of exercises: Types and kinds
- •6.4. System of exercises
- •6.4.1. Basic notions of a system, subsystem, complex, series, cycle, group of exercises
- •4 Skills
- •6.4.2. Characteristics of the system of exercises
- •6.4.3. Basic methodological principles of constructing the system of exercises
- •6.5. Conclusions
- •7.1. Speaking as a skill
- •7.2. Aims of teaching speaking in a secondary school
- •7.3. Linguistic peculiarities of dialogical speech
- •7.3.1. Functional correlation of dialogue replies
- •7.3.2. Structural correlation of replies
- •7.3.3. Kinds of dialogical unit
- •7.3.4. Functional types of dialogue
- •7.4. Stages of teaching dialogue
- •7.4.1. Dialogical unit as an item of teaching
- •7.4.2. Communicative situations
- •7.4.3. Four faces of a situation
- •7.4.4. System of exercises in teaching dialogical speech
- •7.4.4.1. Exercises of group 1
- •7.4.4.2. Exercises of group 2
- •7.4.4.3. Exercises of group 3
- •7.4.4.4. Exercises of group 4
- •7.5. Psychological and linguistic peculiarities of dialogic and monologic speech. Types of monologue
- •7.5.1. Psychological characteristics of dialogue and monologue
- •7.5.2. Linguistic characteristics of dialogue and monologue
- •7.6. Functional types of monologue
- •7.7. System of exercises in teaching monologic speech
- •7.7.1. Exercises of group I
- •7.7.2. Exercises of Group 2
- •Verbal sound and illustrative (visual) aids
- •7.7.3. Exercises of group 3
- •7.8. Conclusions
- •8. Teaching the receptive skills: listening
- •8.7. Conclusions
- •8.1. Role and place of listening in teaching English
- •8.2. Listening as a skill in real-life communication
- •8.3. Typology of listening
- •8.3.1. Kinds of listening
- •8.3.2. Types of listening
- •8.4. Types of text for teaching listening in school
- •8.4.1. Authentic and non-authentic listening
- •8.4.2. Structure of texts for listening
- •8.4.3. Types of text for listening
- •8.5. Major premises and conditions for effective teaching listening
- •8.5.1. Major premises for listening
- •8.5.2. Conditions for effective listening
- •8.6. System of exercises in teaching listening comprehension in school
- •8.6.1. Preparatory exercises: Isolating the listening skill
- •8.6.2. Preparatory exercises: Non-isolated listening skill
- •8.6.2.1. Exercises in finding grammatical cues
- •8.6.2.2. Exercises in guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words
- •8.6.2.3. Exercises in understanding sentences containing unfamiliar words which do not interfere with comprehension
- •8.6.2.4. Exercises in anticipation
- •8.6.2.5. Exercises in eliciting different categories of meaningful information (time, space, cause, effect, etc.)
- •8.6.2.6. Exercises in estimating types of cohesion
- •8.6.2.7. Exercises in telling the main idea in a group of sentences
- •8.6.2.8. Exercises in developing auditive memory and attention
- •8.6.3. Authentic listening material
- •8.6.3.1. Authentic listening material at the early stages
- •8.6.3.2. Communicative exercises: Teaching listening as a skill
- •8.6.4. Using listening comprehension dialogues in class
- •8.6.5. How to justify the use of songs
- •8.7. Conclusions
- •9. Teaching the receptive skills: reading
- •9.2.2. Grammar
- •9.6. Conclusions
- •9.1. Reading as perception of information
- •9.1.1. Vocalisation and verbose
- •9.1.2. Redundancy
- •9.1.2.1. Uncertainty and information
- •9.1.2.2. Sources of redundancy
- •9.2. Reading as interpretation of information
- •9.2.1. Surface and deep structures
- •9.2.2. Grammar
- •9.2.3. Learning: Knowledge
- •9.2.4. Three faces of memory
- •9.3. Reading as a skill
- •9.3.1. Reading in real life: Functions
- •9.3.2. Interest and usefulness
- •9.3.3. Purpose and expectations
- •9.3.4. Specialist skills of reading
- •9.3.4.1. Predictive skills
- •9.3.4.2. Extracting specific information
- •9.3.4.3. Getting the general picture
- •9.3.4.4. Extracting detailed information
- •9.3.4.5. Recognising function and discourse patterns
- •9.3.4.6. Deducing meaning from context
- •9.4. Aims of teaching reading in a secondary school
- •9.4.1. Reading as a vehicle of teaching
- •9.4.2. Aims of teaching reading in school
- •9.4.3. Kinds of reading mastered in school
- •9.4.4. Techniques of reading and stages of teaching
- •9.5. How to teach reading
- •9.5.1. Teaching reading aloud
- •9.5.1.1. Three methods of teaching reading aloud
- •9.5.1.2. Grapheme-phonemic exercises
- •9.5.1.3. Structural information exercises
- •9.5.2. Teaching silent reading
- •9.5.2.1. The twin problem of analysis and synthesis
- •9.5.2.2. Semantic-communicative exercises
- •9.6. Conclusions
7.4.4.3. Exercises of group 3
Exercises of the third group serve for teaching students to construct MDs using DUs they have already mastered in the course of performing exercises of the second group. MDs differ from DUs not only in the number of replies, but in their relative completeness as well. Of course, every MD may be continued, as well as brought to a close at the last reply that is reactive. To continue a conversation a new stimulating reply is needed (e.g. Anyway,.. Besides,.. On the other hand... etc.). The dialogue itself includes two or three MDs.
Exercises of the third group are referred to as receptive-productive exercises of the 1st level where the use of cues is allowed (See the table of the system of exercises).
In contrast with predominantly communicative (simulative communicative) exercises communicative exercises of the 1st level lack in strict conditionality of the pupils’ utterances. These exercises are performed as a P – P activity. That is why the teacher has to formulate a communicative task for each partner and with the help of an advanced pupil or a phonogram demonstrates a model of performing the activity. Any of the ‘Short Conversation’ series from pupils’ textbook may serve the purpose. For example:
Ex.1. Instruction: a) for partner A: You are a shop assistant. Help the customer choose the thing he wants to buy.
b) for partner B: You are a customer. Tell the shop assistant what you want to buy and ask him to help you.
Model: S: What can I do for you?
C: I want to buy a pair of shoes. Can you help me choose one?
S: Certainly. What colour shoes do you prefer?
C: Brown.
S: Here you are.
Having listened to the model, the learners make up their own MDs in accordance with the received instructions. With this type of exercises, not only aural cues (i.e. a phonogram-model) are used. As a rule, various visual verbal cues are used. They may be presented as a dialogue-scheme or a dialogue-substitution table. For example, basing on the mentioned above model micro dialogue we can construct a cue scheme:
A: What can I do for you?
B: I want… Can you…
A: Willingly. What colour … do you prefer?
B: …
A: Here you are.
In our scheme, we leave blanks for the variable elements. These blanks have to be filled in by the learners. Set expressions are given in full.
If we take a verbal cue substitution table then we can see that there are several variants of variable elements. The student has to choose the appropriate variant from this variety.
-
A:
May I try on
that
those
hat
overcoat
dress
jacket
trousers
gloves
shoes
please?
B:
Yes, certainly.
A:
Oh,
this… is
those… are
too
small
large
It is considered advisable to use a substitution table first, for it is a fuller cue, and only then a scheme. Nevertheless, these can be used simultaneously if the level of the group allows. Visual verbal cues may be presented to pupils as hand out material (cardboards for pair-work), a wall-chart or an OHP transparent acetate sheet. The transparent picture has a number of advantages, for it is made in a single copy with minimal amount of time and effort spent. However, such a cue does not allow for individualisation of the pupils’ work. This task is successfully fulfilled with the help of hand out cardboards.
Non-verbal cues may be of three types: subjective, illustrative and schematic. The subjects of reality: books, toys, pens, desks, chairs, etc. are used as subjective cues. As illustrative cues pictures, slides, stills of a filmstrip, transparencies of an OHP are used. Non-verbal subjective and especially illustrative cues can be combined with verbal cues. E.g., in the mentioned above dialogue-substitution table the names of articles of clothes can be substituted with their pictures.
Dialogue-functional scheme as a specific means of teaching
The cue in the form of a dialogue-functional scheme is given a specific place. Here communicative functions of separate replies, their sequence and interrelation are indicated on the scheme. Speech input itself is not shown. That is why such schemes are related to non-verbal references. The functional scheme is a peculiar model of a dialogue. The mentioned above conversation between a shop assistant and a customer may be presented in the following functional scheme:
-
‘functional question’
(an offer to help)
informing; asking for something; requesting
specification question
answering
offering/ suggesting
In comparison with subjective and illustrative cues, functional schemes make learners feel rather free and less dependent. The scheme indicates only the functions of replies and determines their sequence. However, it restricts the pupils’ initiative. That is why any cue should be withdrawn in the end.