7. The criteria of phraseological units and the problem of their classification

There are many terms for phraseological units, but the best one is “set expressions”, for it accentuates the specific qualities of phraseological units: stability, idiomaticity, integrity, syntactic indivisibility. The central problem is the criteria of distinguishing them from free word groups. Shakhmatov and Fortunatov singled out the following criteria: stability, idiomaticity, function and context. Criterion of stability means that the components of phraseological units follow each other in the definite constant order, there can be no substitution for them(red tape).This view point has been criticized, since many phraseological units lack absolute stability and admit variations(to make dacision-to take decision). Criterion of idiomaticity is based on the lack of motivation. Vinogradov singled out the degrees of idiomaticity: a phraseological unit is based on a phraseological fusion, which is non-motivated at all, i.g. to kick the bucket. Free word groups can be perceived through the metaphorical or metonymical meaning, i.g. to wash one’s dirty linen in public. Phraseological collocations are stable set word groups which still have a clear motivation but strictly limited vocabulary, i.g. to shrug one’s shoulder. This view point has been criticized, for there is no distinct boarder line between phraseological units and word groups on one hand and word groups and phraseological collocations – on the other. Criterion of function presupposes that phraseological units are grammatically and stylistically inseparable, in a sentence they behave like a single syntactic form, i.g. He wrote it in a long run. This view point has been criticized, as the same phraseological units may be inseparable in 1 type of syntactic context, but quite separable in another, i.g. take care - care was taken. According to the criterion of context phraseological units have a fixed meaning (unlike free word groups).

3 approaches to classification: Semantic,Structural,Functional: Semantic: 2 criterea- degree of semantic isolation, degree of disinformation: 1)Opaque in meaning(meaning of separate words don’t produce the meanng of a whole (to kich the bucket=to die). These are phras.fusions& don’t lend themselves to literal translation; are specific for every language. 2)semi-opaque(one component preserves its direct meaning (to passs the buck= to pass responsibility). Phras.combinations, are motivated. 3)transparent(both components in direct meaning, but their combination aquires combinative sense(to see the light=understand). Phras.unities,The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole.Some are easily-transl-d & even international. Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”. 1. Nominative- A hard nut to crack 2. Nominative –communicative – verbal phraseological units can’t be changed into passive: not “The ice is broken”, but “to break the ice”, to stand one’s ground. 3. Interjectional & modal- emotions, feelings: pretty cattle of fish, Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!), As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2). 4. Communicative -proverbs, sayings. Allow substitution: There is no smoke without fire. Nominative: 1)Substantive: crocodile tears. 2) Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber. 3)Adverbial: by & by, to & from; 4)Verbal: to live like a lord. Structural: 1. Fixed idioms: a) fixed regular idioms (It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question); b) fixed irregular /can be varied on the grammatical level/(to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...). 2. Variable (varied on the lexical level) Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame; to mind one’s own business /to mind one business; to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть). Dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard/AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet. Кунин Classification: 1. Одновершинные (with one peak) ( one peak phraseological units, one form word, one notional )Ex.: to leave for good, by heart, at bay – быть в отчаянном положении. 2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination. Ex.: a bitter pill to swallow, all the world & his wife. 3. Partly predicative( a word + subordinate clause ) Ex.: It was the last straw that broke the camels back. 4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive) Ex.: to eat like a wolf, the Rubicon is crossed. 5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock. It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back. Functional: Алёхина classified phraseological units and divided them into14 core patterns, according to thief part-of-speech function. The most productive ones are: 1)Set expressions functioning like NOUNS: N+N- maiden name. N’s+N cat’s paw(one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer & stronger person). N+prep+N the arem of a law. N+A knight errant. N+&+N lord & master(husband). A+N green room. 2)VERBS: V+N to take advantage. V+postpositive- to give up. V+one+N to give one the bird…3)ADJ. A+&+A high & mighty.(as)+A+as+A as mad as a hatter. 4)ADV. –a big group containing many types of units, some with high frequency index,neutral in style & devoid expressiveness, other expressive. N+N tooth & nail.Prep+N by heart, of course. Adv+prep+A+N once in a blue moon. Prep+N+or+N by hook or by crook. Conj+clause before one can say Jack Robinson. 5)PREP. Prep+N+prep in consequence of 6)INTERJ. (these are often structured as imperative sentences) Bless(one’s soul!), God bless me! Take your time!