5.Metonymic change of word-meaning in Eng.&Ukr.

Transference based on contiguity

Metonymy- type of semantic shift, figure of speech the essence of which is the substitution of the anme of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant- the 2 objects may be associated together because they often appear in a common situations, so that the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of another(or can be based on the principle of cause and effect).

“sad”(Old English)- satisfied with food. Later -> oversatisfied with food(overeaten)->negative connotation describing not happy state of satisfaction, and on the contrary, the physical discomfort.

Cognitive/conceptual metonymy- analysis of metonymical expressions in terms of cognitive semantics, resorting to th notion of conceptual domain. It names one aspect or element in a conceptual domain while referring to some other element which is in contiguity relation with it. Basic instances of conceptual metonymy: person for his name(I’m not in the list), possessor for possessed(My tyre is flat), container for the contained(This is an excellent dish), producer for produced(My ne macintosh is superb)…

Metinymy is the tendency of certsin words to occur in near proximity & mutuality influence one another: He drinks 2 cups(tea/coffee) every morning.

Metonymy can be:

Lexical (is a source of creating new words or new meanings): a hand (instead of worker), the press (instead of people writing for newspapers), нам треба більше робочих рук

Contextual (is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech): This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel. Окуляри сьогодні були дуже прискіпливі: на зборах прискіпливо дивились на молодий ентузіазм

6. Types of borrowed words, types and degrees of their assimilation.

Borrowing- a loan word, taken over from another language & modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

The following types can be distinguished: -loan words proper(borrowed from another lang. & assimilated to some extent; -loan transitions(translation loans(calques)-words formed from a material already existing in language but according to patterns taken from another language by way of literal word-to-word or morph-to-morph translation. (chain smoker- Kettenraucher, goes without saying- va sans dire); -semantic borrowings(development of a new meaning for already existing word in language due to the influence of a related word in another lang. Classification according to the borrowed aspect- 1)Phonetic(words are brrwd with speling, pronunc.&meaning, then some changes are involved(labour, travel, people(Fr), nomenklatura, sputnik(Rus),soprano, duet(It); 2)Transition (word-for-word/morph-to-morph transl.of some foreign words or expressions(to take the bull by horns(Lat), fair sex(Fr), living space(Germ); 3)Semantic(a new meaning of the unit, existing in a lang, is borrowed(gift-дарунок-выкуп за жену(Old Eng); 4)Morphemic(Borrowing of affixes which occur in the lang.when many words with identical affixes are borrowed form one lang to another, so that the morph.structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to native-;anguage speakers.(-able, goddess, beautiful). Classification according to the degree of assimilation: The degree depends on: -from what group of lang. the word is borrowed, -in what way the word is borrowed(orally/written), -how often the borrowing is used, -how long word lives in lang. I.Completely-assimilated II.Partly-assimilated III.Barbarisms. Classifiction according to the lang.from which it was borrowed: Latin, French,Italian,Spanish, Germanic,Holland,Russian,Turkish, Jewedish etc.