Synchronic and diachronic approaches to variability of word meaning

Semantic structure of a word is not stable and may be different at different periods of language development. That’s why a word’s semantic structure is studied either synchronically, at a certain period of time, or diachronically, in the process of its historical development.

The synchronic approach to a word’s semantic structure aims to register various meanings of polysemantic words, their value and character of their relations.

The meaning that first comes to our mind or is understood without special context , the one that can be representative of the whole semantic structure of a word, is called the basic, central or major meaning; it is placed first in the synchronical dictionaries. Other meanings are called peripheral or minor.

If semantic structure is viewed diachronically, then its historical development, change of meaning becomes central.

The meaning first registered in the language is called primary and is placed first in the historical dictionaries. Other meanings are secondary, derived and are placed after the primary one.

Due to historical changeability of semantic structure, the primary meaning of a word may disappear in the course of time or may not be the most representative for the whole structure or one of the secondary meanings may become major\ central. For example, the primary meaning of the adjective sweet was “pleasant to the taste” and the meaning “one of the four basic sensations, like that of sugar” was its derivative, while in modern English the latter has become central and now is placed first in dictionaries.

The semantic structure is never static, the relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individual meanings may be different in different periods of the historical development of language.

The actual arrangement of meanings in the semantic structure of any word in any historical period is the result of the semantic development of this word within the system of the given language.

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What are the main characteristics of a learner’s dictionary?

Nowadays many linguists and lexicographers give great attention to practical and theoretical learner’s lexicography. Method specialists discuss such problems as the classification of learner’s dictionaries.

In the broad sense the term “learner’s dictionary” might be applied to any word-book designed as an aid to native and foreign users, studying a language from different angles. But also the term “learner’s dictionary” implies that it should meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue. These dictionaries differ from ordinary academic dictionaries and form word-books compiled for English and American schoolchildren and college students.

But the needs and problems of learner’s dictionaries’ users are also different. For example, a foreign adult student may not know the names for such common things in everyday life as towel, rug or he\ she may have weak fluent speech habits and a limited vocabulary. And also smb may have stable speech habits in their native language and these native speech habits interfere with the foreign. That’s why these users must be given thorough instruction in how the words are to be used. This is the reason for the fact that the word-lists and the sort of directions for use for the benefit of the foreign adult learners of English must differ widely from those given to English or American learners.

The characteristic features of the word-books of this group are the following:

1. strictly limited word-list, the selection of which is based on carefully thought over scientific principles.

2. great attention is given to the functioning of lexical units in speech

3. a strong prescriptive, normative character\ orientation

4. the complication with the native linguistic background in view.

It should be mentioned that learner’s dictionaries may be classified according to different principles, the main of which are:

1. the scope of the word-list

2. the nature of information afforded.

From the point of view of the scope of the word-list ( 1) ) they fall into two groups: 1. w-lists which contain all lexical units that the prospective user may need (A.S.Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) 2. only essential and important words are selected (A Grammar of English Words by H.Palmer).

According to the second main principle ( 2) ) there must be a group of dictionaries presenting different aspects of the vocabulary: showing the semantic structure of words (explanatory); presenting the syntagmatic relations between words (dictionaries of collocations); providing info about the word’s structure (derivational); supplying synonymous and antonymous words.

As to the info they provide they may be divided into two groups: 1. giving equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics and the way it is used in speech (learner’s dictionaries proper) for example, The Progressive English Dictionary;An English Reader’s Dictionary by A.S.Hornby 2. concentrating on detailed treatment of the word’s lexical and grammatical valency (dictionaries of collocations) Dictionary of English Style by A.Reum; Verbal Collocations in Modern English by Ginzburg, S.Khidekel, E.Mednikova, A.Sankin.

There exists also a group of dictionaries which reflect the practice of teaching different aspects of speech (scientific or technical texts) and contain a selected list of active words explained from the point of view of their use.