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12. The style of news media (Broadcast journalism).

The world of the news media embraces the spheres of written, or 1)print (newspapers and magazines), and 2)spoken, or broadcasting (radio and television), journalism.

It performs multifarious functions:1.to inform a wide audience about the events in the news, 2.to suggest and often impose their possible interpretation or 3)just to share an opinion about them with a contemporary.

Each paper or channel has worked out its house style – a journalistic style characterized by the preferred forms of expression. Their selection mainly depends on the following 3 factors: 1)the awareness of what its readership/ listener/ viewer wants; 2)the treated area (politics, economy, science) that predetermines the application of the correspondent vocab units including neologisms, abbrev, international wds; 3)the allotted (распредел) for a particular variety time and space.

Modern radio & TV broadcast news & they educate and entertain the listener /the viewer. Only about 5% of broadcast production is devoted to current news and its discussion.

Current news is reported in the news bulletin or newscast. It traditionally consists of a series of news items and falls into several blocks (general, politics, business, sport, weather).

Sometimes it is expanded by a crawl line.

TV & radio news programmes start up and end with the headline which is a news round-up containing the main news issues read out before the full broadcast and summarized at the end. In television each of the items is presented in the form of a documentary.

News broadcasting is characterized by: 1)impartiality of expression 2) neutral and clichéd language. The viewers /listeners are effected not only by the emotive (e.g. genuine metaphors and similes) and argumentative (e.g. opinions of experts, eyewitnesses’ evidence, generalization, parenthesis, parallels, connectives) verbal means.

The influence is reinforced by diff non-verbal modes: 1)the observer’s voice & personality; 2)a spec selection of background sound techniques (energetic or sorrowful music) 3)In TV intensification by the video image (pitiful pictures).

Most often reported news is afterwards surveyed and interpreted in TV and radio news magazines, often being the product of investigative journalism.

TV and radio commentaries are spoken accompaniments to a broadcast. They may accompany various public events (funerals, inaugurations, processions). But the most frequent kinds of commentary are those associated with sports & games. According to D. Crystal, they can be of two types: 1)the ‘play-by-play’; 2) the ‘colour-adding’ commentaries (display pre-event background, post-event evaluation, and within-event interpretation).

Features of the ‘play-by-play’ commentary: 1)a highly formulaic manner of expression (helps fluency and gives the commentator time to think) 2)At times the speed of delivery gets slower or faster, reflecting the atmosphere in the field. 3)The discourse structure is cyclical, as commentators by summary regularly inform the listeners or viewers who have just switched on or simply lost track of what is happening. 4)use of the present tense, ellipsis, and the inverted word order. 5)the frequent use of the passive voice. It allows the commentator to delay mentioning the player’s name.

13.Text(T) st-cs. Types of information. Basic textual segments. T categories.

T st-cs aims at investigating the most effective ways & means of producing Ts belonging to diff styles, substyles, genres. T, as a completed product of speech, represents a sequence of wds, grammatically connected & semantically coherent, & having a certain communicative goal. St-c analysis of a concrete T should lead to a clear & profound understanding of its content. St-cally significant seem to be the problems related to the types of info imparted by diff Ts, the problem of T categories & the problem of textual segments.

According to Galperin, there are 3 types of content inf: factual, conceptual, subtextual.

1)Factual inf is associated with data about people, things, events. It is always explicit. It is supposed to be logical & objective by character. 2)Conceptual inf reflects the author’s individual understanding of the relationship among the people, things, events described (for e.g. their cause-effect links). This sort of logical inf is inferred (подразумеваемый) => various interpretations are possible. It is derived from the T by the reader himself => subjective. 3)Subtextual inf – kind of implicit inf stylistic by its nature. This additional inf can appear in the T as a result of interaction & simultaneous realization of diff types of lex & structural mngs.

Aesthetic inf (t belonging to the belles-letters style) is created on the basis of all 3 types of content inf. Objective aes inf- part of general semantic inf of a particular T. Subjective aes inf- is embodied in connotative & emotive stylistic means of the T which contribute to its implicit content.

T categories: 1) Content cat-s (characterize the T in terms of its semantics & pragmatics):informality, modality, expressi-veness, emotiveness, accentuation, intertextuality. 2) Structural cat do not deal with the ontological aspect of the T & are represented by cohesion, integrity, completeness.

Informality-T cat embracing multi-channel logical & st-c inf which aims at developing the author’s ideas about the things & processes reflected in the T. Modality- manifestation of the author’s attitude to the phenomena described. Expressiveness can be traced on diff lng levels & is realized through imaginary, transposition, breaking normative valency of wd, inclusion of dialectical wds& borrowings. Emotivness is realized through st-c means that reveal the emotions of an author, evokes response of the reader. Accentuation aims at giving semantic prominence to a certain piece of factual inf or laving special emphasis on the most imp elements of conceptual inf.(explicit connectives, parenthetic wds, intensifiers, st-c repetition, parallelism).Intertextuality is closely connected with the notion of subtext & understanding the T itself as the dialogue going on btw the author & the reader during the process of their communication. subtext can be created by allusions, citations.

Cohesion is associated with logically consistent development of the main theme (realized by connectors(&, but), transitions( & then, again), pronouns(this, that), lexical& synonymic repetitions, developed antithesis, sustained metaphor, parallel constructions). Completeness of the T can be understood as the result of the integrity of its constituent units.

14.The style of religion.

The main aims -- expressing religious belief on public occasions, explaining the existing world, regulating individual/group behaviour.

Elements of the rel style may be used also in literature, in the daily colloquial speech in the form of allusions, quotations, set expressions and create humour (… the place where Strickland lived had the beauty of the Garden of Eden...; prodigal son).

The religious style is realized in numerous forms and practices: the texts from the Bible, books of prayers and religious hymns, common prayers, sermons, songs, psalms, theological discourse, the language of the Divine Liturgy and different Christian rites...

According to D. Crystal and D. Davy it falls into at least three substyles: 1) the biblical substyle, 2) the liturgical substyle, and 3) the theological discourse substyle.

Phonological and graphological feat: 1)feat of a prayer spoken in unison by the congregation is monotony and frequent level tones. 2)prayers spoken by one person -- narrowness of pitch range & drop in the pitch at the end. 3) slowing down and increasing of the pace of articulation (to distinguish some words of particular imp) 5)In writing are used typographical techniques (italics, bold type, different colours, small type, etc.) 6) Capitali-zation draws attention to some imp wds (e.g. Lord, God, Father, Son, The Holy Spirit, etc.). 7)Paragraphs can be numbered.

Grammatical features Syntax is characterized by:1)the use of complete, complex and compound sentences; 2)the tendency towards coordination (within the sentence as well as within nominal and verbal groups); 3)frequent occurrence of inverted wd order(wide was the gate and great was the fall of it), detachment, parallel constructions (accompanied by lexical and root repetition: judge- judgment), anaphora, epiphora, polysyndeton, 4) the use of the archaic pronouns (e.g. thou, thy, etc.) and verb forms (e.g. Father himself loveth you; thou asketh, etc.), the use of the direct address.

Vocabulary: 1) rich imagery created by similes, metaphors, metonymies, epithets (false prophets .. are wolves, good tree bringeth forth good fruit). 2)archaic words (serpent, a publican for a person who collected taxes). 3)the wds and combinations belong to the formal or elevated layers (to glorify, to have mercy, sacred). 4)frequent oppositions (seek – find, ask – receive, bread-stone). 5)special terms (prophecy, virtue, sin, vice, sacrifice, etc.) – religious vocabulary that is connected with the concept of God.

Judge not, that ye be not judged. For with what judgement ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again.

15. St-c function, information, norm.

St-cs does not study or describe separate linguistic units as such. It studies their stylistic function, i.e. it is interested in the expressive potential or expressive properties of linguistic units and their interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in a certain context. Peculiarities of a st-c funct:1)its ‘chameleon’ quality –a func of SD may vary from context to context (a hyperbole may be used for creating a humorous or dramatic atmosphere); 2) implicit character - is secured by the connotative meanings of wds; 3)accumulative character- a certain mood or feeling is usually rendered by a group of various means. This phenomenon is also termed convergence of devices. 4)irradiating character - few or even one lingual unit with an outstanding st-c function may attach a peculiar sounding to the whole speech unit.

Stylistic information, or st-c colouring of a lingual unit, is the knowledge where, in what particular type of communication, the unit is current.

The majority of the wds are st-cally neutral ( when taken separately they only denote without connoting).

St-cally coloured wds (e.g. bookish, poetic, official, colloquial, dialectal, vulgar) have each a kind of ‘label’ on them showing where the unit was ‘manufactured’ and where it generally belongs. They preserve their ‘label’ or ‘trade-mark’ even in isolation.

Our verbal experience helps us to identify the belonging of wds to a certain sphere.

A specific distribution may also add some unexpected colouring to a generally neutral word. Such st-c connotation is called occasional.

Stylistic colouring of linguistic units is also the result of their distributional capacities. The term distribution implies the possibilities of combining the given unit with its immediate environment.

St-c norm indicate in what collocations and speech variety certain lingual units are proper or improper.

In the following examples we shall observe the opposition of three sublanguages (styles): 1)The old man is dead (normal literary, practically neutral). (Cf. Старик умер.) 2)The gentleman well advanced in years attained the termination of his terrestrial existence (high-flown, exquisite, pompous). (Cf. Старец скончался.) 3)The ole (low colloquial for old) bean he kicked the bucket (low colloquial, derogatory). (Cf. Старый хрыч подох (сыграл в ящик).)

Продолжение №13

Some scientists say that the basic textual segment is a supra-phrasal unit. It is a number of sent-s structurally & semantically interconnected that expresses only one definite thought & can be extracted from the context withought losing a relative semantic independence of its own. They often coincide with paragraphs. => some scientists think they are the basic textual segment. Most par consist of 2 parts: 1)the thesis usu contained in the topic, or key sentence; 2) the supporting details revolving around the main idea & expanding on it.

Structural pattern of par: 1)deductive- greatest imp at the top of the par; 2)inductive- generalizing at the bottom; 3)deductive-inductive -2 key sent ( 1 initiating the par, the other concluding). Acc to the basic types of speech par : par-narration, par-description, par-reasoning.

16. The style of off documents (the substyle of business & military documents)

I.R. Galperin’s classification of substyles of the official documents style includes: diplomatic docs, business docs, legal docs, and military docs.

The Style of Business Docs -commercial correspondence. B docs and letters are characterized by a high level of standardization. They are a combination of ready-made forms and stereotyped phrases as lucidity (ясность) & conciseness (краткость) are very important.

Peculiarities: 1)st-cally neutral voc 2)absence of tropes & evaluative or em colour voc 3)encoded character of the lng: abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols( Ltd= limited, $ ) 4)special compositional design:

The heading of the letter gives the address of the writer and the date (in the upper right-hand corner); next (lower, in the left-hand corner) the name of the addressee and his (her) address. Then follow the polite form of direct address. The body of the business document (letter) should be concise and to the point, without unnecessary information or explanation, written in short, direct sentences. The text proper is followed by the complimentary clause and the signature of the sender

The usual way of address is Dear Sir(s), Dear Madam, Gentlemen.A personal name is practically never used in the direct address of a business letter

There are many standard formulas used : to express request: Please, inform us …, We shall (should) be oblige if you …, We shall (should) appreciate it if; to apologise: We regret that …, Unfortunately, we …, We beg to …; to thank for: We acknowledge with thanks …, We thank you …, We appreciate … All these formulas contribute to fostering such feat as precision, exactness and help to avoid ambiguity. At the same time they simplify & quicken business correspondence

Graphical: bold, all capital.

The Style of Military Documents

different types – plans, estimates, summaries, surveys, evaluation, situation maps, orders. All of them have a certain composition (an operating order has a heading, a body and an ending).

Military documents are characterized by their brevity, clarity, precision, non-admittance of many interpretations. The main purpose of making them brief is to economize time nec for their composition, handling of messages.

Military vocabulary includes1) terms (classification, intelligence), which helps to avoid ambiguity and misinterpretation; 2)special military phraseology (to hold a position, to lift fire, to provide protection), 3)abbreviations, (Co – company, SW – south west, w/o without) 4)symbols.5) Metaphors used as code signs and have no aesthetic value. 6)There are also many proper names – both personal and geograph

Its morphological peculiarities are 1)rare use of the possessive case, 2)omission of articles, 3)use of two moods only:imperative and indicative, 4)use of two tenses: the present ind. and the past ind.

Syntactically : 1) simple short sentences – nominal and verbal one-member. 2)As a rule, no exclamatory &negative sentences.

17. Correlation of the notions functional style & discourse.

18. The scientific prose style (the substyle of popular scientific prose).

manuals, monographs, articles, presentations, theses, dissertations, etc. The aim of the sc prose style is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. Sc prose is objective, precise, lucid, and unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is also a striving for the most generalized form of expression and logicality.

Objectivity is gained by the use of quotations, references, digressions, “we” instead of “I”, passive constructions, it-sentences, non-finite verb forms( participial, gerundial, infinitive complexes), generalizations( the linguists would say here…)

Logical sequence is obtained by use of extended system of connectives, extended complex & compound sent with subordinate clauses, homogeneous members)

Lucidity – terms, neologisms, formulas.

The addressee factor is an important factor for singling out the substyle of popular sc prose.

Popular scientific texts address the audience at large, anyone whom the topic may concern or interest. That is why, even containing many of the enumerated styleforming features, popular scientific texts abound in 1) explanations that accompany terms, 2) illustrative examples from everyday life. 3)lowered in style, more digestible 4)use of expressive means (em coloured wds, expressive syntax :gradation, antithesis, rhetorical ?, parallel constructions; lexical SD (metaphors, similies); 5)colloquial elements.

So, they stand close to the language of everyday speech and analytical journalistic texts.

19. The notion of functional style, individual style & idiolect.

Galperin: FS- a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. FSs are products of concrete social tasks set out by the lng community.

Arnold: specifity of each style is predetermined by the specifity of functions carried out by lng in a particular sphere of communication.

Karasik: a variety of discourse singled out on the basis of the communicative distance, degree of self-expression, lng clichés.

The term comes right from the consideration of such notions as function (the purpose or aim of communication), sphere of communication and norm in their relation to speech varieties and their classification.

Today functional stylistics faces a number of problems that have no definite and final solutions. Here belong 1)the discrimination btw the approaches to the study of speech varieties by functional stylistics and discourse analysis; 2)the basic criteria for the separation of FSs; 3)the systematization (classification) of FSs, 4)the possibility of isolation as FS the colloquial variety and imaginative literature.

One should not confuse the notion of FS with the notion of individual style (IS).IS presupposes a deliberate, though often intuitional choice of lng means. It is normally applied to a writer's individual manner of using lng means to achieve the effect he desires. (Shakespeare's style, Faulkner's style)

But IS is not the speech of an individual that is called idiolect. It is habitual idiosyncrasy in the use of lng that is typical of any individual.

ПРОДОЛЖЕНИЕ 11

Rhyme- the identity of sounds btw syll or paired groups of syll, usu at the end of the verse line. Rhyming element= lastr str vowel + all sounds following it. Types of rhyming elements: 1) monosyllable( love/above- masculine rh), 2) 2 syllable (wether/together- feminine rh/double rh), 3) 3 sylls (glamorous/amorous- triple rh). These rhyming pairs are examples of full rhyme also called true rhyme.

A wrd rhymes with a wrd-group (compound, or mosaic rhymes): famous/ same as.

‘Eye-rhymes' (half-rhyme/ 'rhymes for the eye' when the endings are pronounced quite diff-ly, but the spelling is identical or similar (love/ prove). Rhymeless verse is called blank verse.

The largest unit in verse is the stanza (also called a strophe) (строфа). It is composed of a number of lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout the poem.

There are many widely recognized stanza patterns in Eng poetry: 1.The heroic (эпический) couplet( It is a stanza that consists of two iambic pentameters with the rhyming pattern aa) 2. The Spencerian stanza consists of nine lines, the first eight of which are iambic pentameters and the ninth is one foot longer ababbcbcc. 3. The ottava rima A stanza consisting of eight lines, each of them iambic pentameter abababcc 4. ballad stanza oldest from of Eng verse characteristic of folk ballads. The metre is the iambus, but it is not strictly kept to. The stanza consists of four lines. abcb 5. The sonnet is a stanza which at the same time is a complete poem in itself. A sonnet is a verse of fourteen lines (iambic pentameters). The rhyming must be strictly observed. ababcdcdefefgg. The most clearly observable characteristic feat of the sonnet on the content plane is the epigram-like last line (or last two lines).

20. The substyle of oratory.

Acc to Galperin, oratory and speeches make an oral subdivision of the publicist style.

Persuasion, or the brain washing function, is the most obvious purpose of oratory.

3 grades of oratory: 1)lowest gr: aimes at & pleasing the audience (inaugural speech); 2)higher gr: not only pleasing but informing, instructing, persuading. 3) gr: greatly influencing, convincing, arousing interest, the orator leads the audience to act in accordance with the expressed cause.

For this the most powerful instrument of persuasion, the human voice, is brought into play. Not infrequently the speaker uses gestures.

Its major traits are: 1)Phonographic: the change of intonation (it breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern, revives the attention of the listeners, conveys the shades of meaning, overtones and emotions); rhyme, alliteration, assonance, rhythm (to reinforce the other SD); typographic techniques (italics, in capital letters, spacing out, bold type).

2)Lexical: elevated and bookish words; colloquial wds (to make the speech less formal); metaphor, allusion, irony; emotive wds,; ready-made phrases or clichés;

3)Syntactical: the use of repetitions (to keep in focus the object of thought, to persuade the audience, to add weight to speaker’s opinion); climax, suspense, antithesis, parallelism, frequent use of rhetorical ? & interrogatives (which promote a closer contact with the audience, revive & keep attention), direct address (special obligatory forms open up and end an oration, My Lords; Mr. President;; Ladies and Gentlemen; at the end of his speech the speaker usu thanks the audience for their attention)

4)Morphological: the use of the 1st person pronouns I, we; the use of the 2nd and 3rd person pronouns you and they in the generalizing function; contractions;

11.The belles-lettres style (the substyle of poetry)

The belles-lettres style falls into 3 substyles 1) The lng of poetry (verse); 2) Emotive prose (lng of fiction); 3)The lng of the drama.

All of them perform the common aesthetico-cognitive function which aims at the cognitive process on the one hand, & at the receiving pleasure on the other one.

Common linguistic features are: 1)Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. 2)The use of wds in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment. 3)A voc reflects to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena. 4)A peculiar individual selection of voc and syntax (lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy);

One of the most distinctive properties of the belles-lettres style is its being individual in essence.

Among the lexical peculiarities of verse the first to be mentioned is fresh, unexpected imagery which assumes in poetry a very compressed form.

Images from a linguistic point of view are mostly built on metaphor, metonymy and simile. Images may be concrete: (visual images; aural images (onomatopoeia) )and abstract: relational images showing the rel btw objects through another kind of relation (E.g. Heroes of unwritten story).

In poetry the emotional element is embodied in emotionally-coloured words.

Brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances and peculiar syntactical structures are also distinguishing features of poetry. But the first differentiating property of poetry, or verse is mainly based on the rhythm and rhyme. The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based on: 1)alteration of stressed an unstressed syllables, 2) an equal number of syllables in the lines, 3)a natural pause at the end of the line, the line being a more or less complete semantic unit, 4)identity of stanza pattern, 5)established patterns of rhyming.

Classic English verse is called syllabo-tonic. Two parameters are taken into account in defining the measure in English verse rhythm: the number of syllables (syllabo) and the distribution of stresses (tonic).

In general, rhythm is an alternation or an interchange of strong and weak segments str & unstr syllables).

The smallest segment of a verse line is the foot (стихотворная стопа) that consists of one str syll & one or two unstr ones. The structure of the foot determines the metre (размер, метр, ритм) , i.e. the type of poetic rhythm of the line. The most recognizable Eng metrical patterns are two disyllabic and three trisyllabic metres: 1)iambus ( a metrical foot consisting of 2 syll: unstr one, followed by a str one) 2)trochee (-//- 2 syll, 1^st –str, 2^nd unstr), 3) dactyl (3 syll, 1^st-str, 2^nd & 3^rd unstr) 4) amphibrach (3 syll, srt syll btw 2 unstr syll) 5)anapaest (3 syll, 2 unstr syll followed by 1 str syll). English verse is predominantly iambic pentameter (пятистопный ямб).