5 Часть.

The lowest frequency produced by any particular instrument is known as the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is also called the first harmonic of the instrument. Voiced sounds consist of fundamental frequency (F0) and its harmonic components produced by vocal cords (vocal folds). With purely unvoiced sounds, there is no fundamental frequency in excitation signal and therefore no harmonic structure either and the excitation can be considered as white noise. The airflow is forced through a vocal tract constriction which can occur in several places between glottis and mouth. When whispering a voiced sound there is no fundamental frequency in the excitation and the first formant frequencies produced by vocal tract are perceived. Unless, the fundamental frequency is outside the telephone channel, the human hearing system is capable to reconstruct it from its harmonic components.is created by the vibration of the vocal cords during speech.

When voicing is produced, the vocal folds vibrate; since vibration is an activity in which a movement happens repeatedly, it is possible in principle to count how many times per second (or other unit of time) one cycle of vibration occurs; if we do this, we can state the frequency of the vibration. Why “fundamental”? The answer is that all speech sounds are complex sounds made up of energy at many different component frequencies (unlike a “pure tone” such as an electronic whistling sound); when a sound is voiced, the lowest frequency component is always that of the vocal fold vibration – all other components are higher. So the vocal fold vibration produces the fundamental frequency.

A fundamental tonecalled the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch.The component tone of lowest pitch in a complex tone.

General Phonetics which studies the human sound producing possibilities, the functioning of his speech mechanism and the ways they are used in all languages to pronounce speech sounds, syllables, stress and intonation. The aim of General Phonetics is the attempt to discover universal principles governing the nature and use of the speech sound.

A general question with rising intonation asks for information and expects "yes" or "no" for an answer, while a general question with falling intonation signals the speaker's confidence in getting an affirmative answer.

Do you have a /CAR? (Standard intonation, asking for information.)

Do you have a \CAR? (The answer "yes" is expected.)

Glide - the transitional sound produced by passing from the articulatory position of one speech sound to that of another. Sometimes in speech we can find clear boundaries between sounds, and in others we can make intelligent guesses at the boundaries though these are difficult to identify; in other cases, however, it is clear that a more or less gradual glide from one quality to another is an essential part of a particular sound. An obvious case is that of diphthongs: in their case the glide is comparatively slow. Some sounds which are usually classed as consonants also involve glides: these include “semivowels”. It is “w” and “j”

Glottal sounds are those sounds made at the glottis. Examples of glottal sounds in English are the following: h

Glottal stop- a momentary check on the airstream caused by closing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) and thereby stopping the vibration of the vocal cords. Upon release, there is a slight choke, or coughlike explosive sound. Glottal stops are found in many accents of English: sometimes a glottal stop is pronounced in front of a p, t or k if there is not a vowel immediately following (e.g. ‘captive’ kʔptiv, ‘catkin’ kʔtkin, ‘arctic’ ɑʔktik); a similar case is that of tʃ when following a stressed vowel (or when syllable-final), as in ‘butcher’ bυtʃə.

The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. Like the child who asked “where does your lap go when you stand up?”, one may imagine that the glottis disappears when the vocal folds are pressed together, but in fact it is usual to refer to the “closed glottis” in this case. Apart from the fully closed state, the vocal folds may be put in the position appropriate for voicing, with narrowed glottis; the glottis may be narrowed but less so than for voicing – this is appropriate for whisper and for the production of the glottal fricative h, while it tends to be more open for voiceless consonants. For normal breathing the glottis is quite wide, usually being wider for breathing in than for breathing out.

Grapheme - one of a set of orthographic symbols (letters or combinations of letters) in a given language that serve to distinguish one word from another and usually correspond to or represent phonemes, e.g. the f in fun, the ph in phantom, and the gh in laugh.

Groove(narrow long) (углубление) - The tongue may make contact with the upper surface of the mouth in a number of different places, and we also know that it may adopt a number of different shapes as viewed from the side. However, we tend to neglect another aspect of tongue control: its shape as viewed from the front. Variation of this sort is most clearly observed in fricatives: it is claimed that in the production of the English s sound, the tongue has a deep but narrow groove running from front to back, while ʃ has a wide, shallow slit.

The head is one of the components of the tone-unit; if one or more stressed syllables precedes the tonic syllable (nucleus), the head comprises all syllables from the first stressed syllable up to (but not including) the tonic. Here are some examples:

(here is the (six oclock \news

¦--------------------------¦

HEAD

(passengers are re(quested to (fasten their \seat belt

¦------------------------------------------------¦

HEAD

If there are unstressed syllables preceding the head, or if there are no stressed syllables before the head but there are some unstressed ones, these unstressed syllables constitute a pre-head.

Hard palate - the bony part of the roof of the mouth, behind the upper teethridge.

Heterography [ˌhɛtəˈrɒgrəfɪ] the phenomenon of different letters or sequences of letters representing the same sound in different words, as for example -ight and -ite in blight and bite.

Heterogeneity - the quality of being diverse and not comparable in kind. (неоднородные)

Heterogeneity is caused due to features of articulatory base and it does not possess

phonological value. Diphthongness of heterogeneous [I] also can be described as an effort for most definite localization which has phonologically stipulated status. It is noticed that those properties

presented only in basic allophones of vowels, and in the presence of combinative positional

changes can be lost totally or partially. Heterogeneity realizes as a result of phonetic conditions- quality of neighboring sounds, positions relating to stress etc. Heterogeneity of articulation is a characteristic for sounds that possess short duration. In many occasions, reduction of duration of short vowels, lead to, that vowel articulate like overall transitional movement from the position that define preceding consonant, to the position, necessary to pronounce next consonant. However that type of articulatory

heterogeneity can be met in pronunciation of stressed vowels, especially if surrounding consonants strongly differ in their characteristics.

Homogeneity - the quality of being similar or comparable in kind or nature.(однородные). About the consonants, also can be said about such combinative homogeneity. So an unvoiced consonant positioned after a vowel, partially characterizes with voiced parts and it needs big effect of articulatory organs. In that occasion vocal chords unable to stop their work to the starting moment of the articulation of unvoiced consonant. A consonant after a labialized vowel strongly delabializes in the middle of its own articulation.

Hiatus - a slight pause that occurs when two immediately adjacent vowels in consecutive syllables are pronounced, as in reality and naïve.

Hyphenate [ˈhaɪfəˌneɪt], hyphen - to separate (syllables, words, etc.) with a hyphen.

A short horizontal mark of punctuation ( - ) used between the parts of a compound word or name or between the syllables of a word when divided at the end of a line.ex: "I'm part of the blame-America-last crowd." , ex-minister, post-war, self-interest.

Historical assimilation is what happens to a sound when it is influenced by one of its neighbours. For example, the word ‘this’ has the sound s at the end if it is pronounced on its own, but when followed by ʃ in a word such as ‘shop’ it often changes in rapid speech (through assimilation) to ʃ, giving the pronunciation ðiʃʃɒp. Assimilation is said to be progressive when a sound influences a following sound, or regressive when a sound influences one which precedes it; the most familiar case of regressive assimilation in English is that of alveolar consonants, such as t, d, s, z, n, which are followed by non-alveolar consonants: assimilation results in a change of place of articulation from alveolar to a different place. The example of ‘this shop’ is of this type; others are ‘football’ (where ‘foot’ fυt and ‘ball’ bɔl combine to produce fυpbɔl) and ‘fruit-cake’(frut + keik → frυkkeik). Progressive assimilation is exemplified by the behaviour of the ‘s’ plural ending in English, which is pronounced with a voiced z after a voiced consonant (e.g. ‘dogs’ dɒz) but with a voiceless s after a voiceless consonant (e.g. ‘cats’ kts).

Historical phonetics establishes the changes in the phonetic system of a certain language or language family at different stages of its historical development, studying closely written monuments, comparing different spellings of one and the same word, rhymes and metres in poetry.

Homophones - if two different words are pronounced identically, they are homophones. In many cases they will be spelt differently (e.g. ‘saw’ – ‘sore’ – ‘soar’ in BBC pronunciation), but homophony is possible also in the case of pairs like ‘bear’ (verb) and ‘bear’ (noun) which are spelt the same.

HomographOne of two or more words that have the same spelling but differ in origin, meaning, and sometimes pronunciation, such as fair (pleasing in appearance) and fair (market) or wind (wnd) and wind (wnd).

Hold stage – (occlusion) blocking of some part of the oral cavity. During which the articulating organs are kept in the position of the certain period of time.

Idiolect [ˈɪdɪəˌlɛkt] - the variety or form of a language used by an individual.

For example, when I'm surprised I often say "What the actual ****?" this is part of my idiolect as it isn't commonly used by other English speakers.

‘Idiophone – a speech sound which is typical of the speech of a particular individual.

Inhalation - the act of taking in breath. Inhalation results from the negative pressure in the lungs caused by contraction of the diaphragm, which causes it to move downwards and to expand the chest cavity. The resulting flow of air into the lungs restores a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere. Also called inspiration.

Inalienable(неотъемлимый)(indispensable(обязательный)/concomitant(сопровождающий)) features –

Instrumental phonetics - the aggregate of methods used in the analysis of a language’s sound system employing various kinds of apparatus and other auxiliary means.

The initial phase(начальнаяфаза) is a learning or rather re-producing phase where the teacher imparts training via modules, games, actions and simple lines like ‘L – lick the lolly – lllll’. Hereby there is cooperation, understanding and easy-approach that are beneficial for children as well as adults.(нето!!!!)