- •Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics Four Branches of Phonetics
- •Daughter - d:tə
- •The plural suffix
- •Branches of Phonetics
- •Modern functional Phonetics
- •This inability to select the right allophone betrays a foreign accent. Abstractional and Generalized aspect
- •[Ph] – aspirated
- •National varieties of the English language
- •Standards in pronunciation
- •English dialects
- •Received pronunciation
- •Often – [fən] and [ftən]
- •Liverpool accent has a great popularity now (because of association with the Beatles)
- •Cockney accent (uneducated English people accent)
- •[P, t, k] are heavily aspirated
- •[P, t, k] between vowels are accompanied by glottal stops
- •Standard Scottish pronunciation
- •Initial [p,t,k] are usually non-aspirated]
- •American English Pronunciation
- •The peculiarities:
- •Intervocalic [t] consonant is most normally may be voiced. The result is neutralization of the distinction between voiceless [t] and voiced [d]
- •In some words [t] may be omit (dropped out)
- •In ga [] is used in most words in which the letter “a” is followed by a consonant except “r” (in rp [α:] is used)
- •In the words “long” and “strong” [] is labialized.
- •In words of French origin ga tends to have stress on the final syllable
- •Intonation differences:
- •Modifications of sounds in connected speech
- •Locked – [lokt]
- •The initial (начальная) [w,k,g] may be dropped
- •The medial sounds are dropped [t,d] in a cluster of three consonants
- •The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb]
- •The syllabic structure of English
- •Principal theories of syllable formation and division
- •Functional characteristics of syllables
- •Вздрогнуть, вскрикнуть, кстати
- •Extra – ['ekstr] – 2 syllables
- •Standing – ['stndi] – 2 syllables
- •Science – ['sai-ns], flower – [fla-]
- •Come – 1 syllable, family – 3 syllables, unintelligibility – 8 syllables) Functional characteristics of a syllable
- •The linguistic and acoustic nature of word stress
- •Types and degrees of the word stress
- •Functional approach to word stress
- •Intonation
- •The concept of intonation in our country and abroad
- •Anatomy (тщательный анализ) of an English intonation group (pattern)
- •Functional approach to intonation
- •It’s summer
- •I don’t know high pre-head
- •I saw my friend yesterday.
- •Ex: ΄How ΄do you ΄think we ΄ought to start?
- •Ex: ΄How do you think we ought to start?
- •Ex: I don’t know what to-o-o say.
- •Phonostylistics
- •Verbal “fillers”
- •Repetition
- •Introductory fillers
- •Introductory fillers
- •I think | this is a grow intendancy among the teenagers.
- •I would agree with you | except for one thing
- •I have an impression | that there are some people who will approve it differently
- •It undoubtedly | -er- presents –er- a huge problem.
- •I think, I guess, perhaps, obviously, clearly
- •I think it’s true to say that …
- •Rhythm as a linguistic notion. The concept of rhythm
- •Sentence stress
- •Rhythm as an effective means of speech expressiveness
- •Come and see me tomorrow. Read and retell text 5.
- •They painted the table pale grey Come and see me tomorrow That’s the very man who had a felt hat on
- •Voilitional function of rhythm
- •Угол – уголь
Modern functional Phonetics
Allophones are variants of one and the same phoneme which never occur (встречаться) in identical positions. They are actual speech sounds.
The phoneme is material. It means it exists in the speech of all people belonging to the language community. It exists in speech in the form of speech sounds – its allophones. All allophones of the same phoneme have several articulatory features in common. Allophones of the same phoneme should meet the following requirements (отвечать требованиям):
-
Allophones of the same phoneme must have one or more articulatory features in common, but they are different.
-
Allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic environment (context) and thus they are incapable (неспособны) of differentiating words and their grammatical forms. Allophone, which is used in the isolated position or in any other position in which it’s not influenced by neighboring sounds is called the principal allophone. All the others are called subsidiary allophones. They are positionally determined (определены). Thus in a certain position we can have different allophones.
[t] – principal
Occlusive (смычный)
Plosive (взрывной)
Fore lingual (переднеязычный)
Alveolar
Fortes (сильный)
Voiceless
Aspirated
-
“Tea” – slightly palatalized
-
“Not they”
“Let them” – dental (assimilation)
-
“Not common”
“Not clear” – not aspirated
“Store”, “Stay”, “Storm” – not aspirated (after “s”)
-
“Tray”, “Tram”, “Try” – post alveolar (before “r”)
-
“Little”, “Kettle” – lateral plosion (before lateral “l”)
-
“Not many”, “Not clear” – nasal plosion
-
“Twice” – a bit labialized (before “w”)
This inability to select the right allophone betrays a foreign accent. Abstractional and Generalized aspect
Language is abstraction from speech. Speech is the reality of the language. Language is generalization of speech. The phoneme is an abstraction from speech, from actually pronounced speech sounds (allophones). This abstraction and generalization is subconsciously (подсознательно) made by all the members of the language community. Native speakers abstract themselves from the difference between the allophones of one and the same phoneme, from that difference that doesn’t affect the meaning. They practically don’t notice this difference, cause it doesn’t serve to differentiate the meaning. They pronounce all the proper allophones from their proper position. When native speakers abstract themselves from the non-distinctive features of the allophones, they at the same time find a combination of distinctive features, those features, that can’t be changed without affecting the meaning. Thus they form a “bundle” (целый букет) of distinctive features (релевантные звуковые характеристики, образующие фонему).
tea – [ti:]
occlusive
fore lingual
fortes
Non of these three characteristics can be changed, cause if we change occlusive constrictive [si:], if we change fore lingual back lingual [ki:]
This “bundle” is sometimes called invariant (инвариант). There features that are common to all the allophones. These common features form the certain invariant, neither of these features can be changed.
It’s impossible to pronounce a phoneme cause we pronounce allophones. A phoneme can’t exist apart from speech sounds. Impossible it in isolation.
[pen], [ten]
Both are occlusive, fortes, but [p] is labial, [t] is fore lingual
This difference in articulation serves to differentiate the meaning, so we can say they are allophones of different phonemes. Those articulatory features that mark sounds and allophones of different phonemes are called distinctive or relevant features. Those that don’t serve to differentiate the meaning are called non-distinctive or irrelevant. The phoneme can perform its distinctive function if it is opposed to some other phoneme in the same phonetic context. Such are called phonologicals.
Allophones don’t have functions of differentiation the words. They usually occur in different positions of the word. They can’t be opposed to each other. We can speak about 2 types of mistakes:
-
Phonological
-
Phonetic
If you replace one allophone of the phoneme by an allophone of some other phoneme – the mistake is called phonological.
bed – bet
ship – sheep
full – fool
The meaning is different
If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by an allophone of the same phoneme – phonetic mistake.
[teibl] – [тeible]
table – тейбл
A foreign accent. The meaning is the same.
Thus phonological mistakes distort (уродуют) the meaning, phonetic mistakes betray (выдают) our foreign accent. Vowel length is irrelevant, quality is relevant. Aspiration is irrelevant.
All the phonemes of the language form a system of phonological oppositions, in which all the phonemes can be opposed to each other in at least one pair of words. So phonemes are capable of distinguishing the meaning of words (tea-sea), grammatical forms (man-men), morphemes (морфемы) (sleeper [ə], sleepy [i]) and even sentences ([ht] – хижина – hut, [hα:t] – сердце – heart. Sorry I have no room for you in my heart (hut)).
Thus phonemes are capable in distinguishing the meaning, and it is the main function of a phoneme.
There are 2 types of transcription:
-
Phonological
-
Phonetic
Phonological transcription can be called “broad”. Phonetic is called “narrow”. The “broad” transcription provides special symbols for all the phonemes of different languages. This type was given by Daniel Jones (British scholar). Our professor Васильев introduced 3 new symbols:
[I] – i; [] – o, ; [] – u
It’s a powerful visual aid, very convenient. The “broad” type Is used in teaching for pedagogical purpose. The “narrow” type provides special symbols for all the allophones, every allophone is particular.