3.Nature of semantic change

1. shift of M (сдвиг) ?

silly was ‘blessed’ (юродивый, блаженный)  not clever

2. transference (перенос) based on associations & metaphoric thinking

A necessary condition of any semantic change is some connection/association betw T old M & T new. Two types of association

Metaphor – transference based on similarity –one thing resembles another

The foot of the mountain hand of T clock

Metonimy – contiguity (сходство по смежности) – two referents are associated, one of which makes part of T other or is closly connected with it

We have a Picasso on the wall

the House  members of T house

40. Phraseological units as compared to words & sentences

Ph units – non-motivated W-groups that can’t be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units

Words

Both Ph U & words

1. convey a single concept

2. ready-made units

3. stable

4. perform the same function

5. possess structural unity

Ph units are non-motivated

 кот наплакал (PH U) = мало (W)

с гулькин нос

Sentences

Ph U don’t possess

1.predication (relationship bw the subj & the predicate)

2.structural freedom

S-ces possess certain str-l freedom – W-order + some components can be changed.

Ph Us (their majority) are str-lly & gram-lly invariable.

Both

1.possess semantic unity but in a dif degree

2.Consist of Ws

Ph U convey a single concept & in s-ces each component stands for a separate concept

11. The complex units of w-b: w-b cluster, row, category

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary.

A der row-is a group of words, built according to the same affix. The roof units them into a der cluster. (pattern+affix)

1 degree: brother- the roof units these words into a der cluster

brotherly (adv)

-brotherless (adj)

-brotherlessness (2 degree)

-to brother

-brother-in-law (2 degree)

This method was introduced by Soboleva.

Der cluster-is a complex unity of words with the same root morpheme they are close in mng, but are built after a number of patterns, which are different. The root units them. The depth of the cluster shows the number of the steps, the degree of derivation. The volume of the cluster – the number of derivatives in a cluster.

Patterns of different kinds, but having one general mng, can be included into one derivation category.

Collectivity – dom, age, hood, ship

Singularity – let. Ing, et, ton

Agentivity – er, ist, ant, ess, ster, ette

12. The functional aspect of w-b system: productivity and activity. The main means of w-b in English

Some of the ways of forming ws in present day E can be resorted to for (обращаться за помощью) the creation of new ws(occasional ws or nonce-ws) whenever the occasion demands-these are called productive ways of forming ws. It’s the ability to make new ws which all who knows E find no difficulty in understanding. Degrees of Pr: 1) highly prod (affixes (-ful) or deriv patterns-a regular meaningful arrangement of immediate constituence which can be expressed by a formular denoting the part of speech lexical-semantic class and individual semantics. ); conversion (window-to window); abbriviation) 2) semi-productive (artificial creations; aff;-ic;-ain)) 3) non-productive (interchange; aff:-dom,-hood). Activity-the ability of an affix to produce new ws, in particular occasional ws or nonce-ws. The suff –er is regarded both as a productive and as an active one: on one hand the e w-stock possesses hundreds of nouns containing this suff (driver, teacher), on the other hand this suff in the pattern v+-er=N is freely used to coin an unlimited number of nonce-ws denoting active agents (действ суфф) (interrupter, respecter). The suff –ful is regarded as a productive one but not as an active one because there hundreds of adjectives with this suff (beautiful, hopeful, useful), but not new ws seem to b e built with its help. Means of w-f There are 2 kinds of them: Major, primary, patterned (моделированные): 1) W-derivation (словопроизв-во), 2) W-composition (словосложение): a) affixation (suff and prefix); b) conversion (N to V: window-to window)/Secondary, minor, non-patterned:1) stress interchange (‘import-to im’port) 2)sound-interchanche (man-men, to know-knew) 3)back formation (table-tables, to drive-driver-the doer were made after, peas-pea-Sg after Pl 4)artificial creation (should be short, easy to pronounce) 5)abbriviation/shortening Semantic changes:The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change.a)Specialisation It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, e.g. «case» has a general meaning «circumstances in which a person or a thing is». It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context)Generalization It is a process contrary to specialization, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time.

The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. «ready» (a derivative from the verb «ridan» - «ride») meant «prepared for a ride», now its meaning is «prepared for anything». «Journey» was borrowed from French with the meaning «one day trip», now it means «a trip of any duration». Elevation It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. «knight» originally meant «a boy», then «a young servant», then «a military servant», then «a noble man». Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people; «marshal» originally meant «a horse man» now it is the highest military rank etc.Degradation It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. «villain» originally meant «working on a villa» now it means «a scoundrel