Viking:

• A man who left his home and sailed far away

• Vik “bay”, “gulf” – a person who is tied to bays with the further meaning of attacking passing ship from the bays

• Vig – “battle”, “flight”

The long slim boats of the Viking (20-50m in length, 5m in width) were pointed at both ends that allowed sailing in the opposite direction without turning the boat about.

The front end had a carved figure of a snake or dragon on it . Such a figure aimed at frightening evil spirits and horrifying enemies.

Boats could admit up to 150 persons and could be carried by men in case of necessity. By this method the Vikings could make long journeys over water.

Starting from the VIII century the British was raided by Scandinavians- the Vikings. Scandinavians settled northern and eastern parts of England. 878 - Aelfred the Great routed the Danes at Edington. According to Wedmore peace a part of England was yield to the invaders and recognized as Danish territory - Danelaw. However, X-X1 centuries Scandinavians tightened their pressure on England. In 1016 , the Danish king Knut drove the English king and added to England to their state . The rule of Denmark , however, was short-lived, andin 1042 , the authorities again transferred to King Magnus. (up to 1047) The influence of Scandinavian dialects of the English language has led not only to significant borrowing English words of Scandinavian origin , but also to changes in the grammatical structure of English However Scandinavians didn’t stop the raiding on England. In 1066, Romanized Scandinavians - Norman - again occupied the power in England. In 912 , they occupied the territory of France , and the French King Charles the Simple , creating with Norman peace treaty allowed them to settle the coastal territory in the north of France , known as Normandy . A half century the Normans who settled Normandy , landed at the head of Duke William at coast of England. 1066 - The Norman conquest. William, Duke of Normandy, who had long lead the English throne, routed the English troops under king Harold Godwin near Hastings on October, 1066. Harold Godwin was killed and the English were defeated. Authorities in England was the aristocracy, who spoke French. This led to massive infiltration of French words in the vocabulary of the English language . Only since the mid XIV century English gradually restoring its rights as the language of the government , judiciary and education.

53. Old Frisian ethnic community: geographical, cultural, and linguistic evidence.

The Roman historian Tacitus, writing in Germania, mentioned the Frisians.  Geographical Frisian , as well as other inhvaeones living on the shores of the North Sea - between the rivers Scheldt and Weser, on the lower Rhine. In this area there were three Friesian formation - Western , Central and Eastern Friseland . In the VIII century, after the creation of the Frankish Empire, all three friselands were added to the empire of the Franks . In the XIII century Western Friseland was conquered by the Dutch. Central and Eastern Friseland fall into dependence on Low Saxon aristocrats. As a result of the existened historical circumstances Frisian nation didn’t have their statehood. In the 5th century, during this period of historical silence, many of them no doubt joined the migration of the Anglo-Saxons who went through Frisian territory to invade Britain, while those who stayed on the continent expanded into the newly-emptied lands previously occupied by the Anglo-Saxons. By the end of the sixth century the Frisians occupied the coast all the way to the mouth of the Weser and spread farther still in the seventh century, southward down to Dorestad and even Bruges. This farthest extent of Frisian territory is known as Frisia Magna. Cultural (p.45)  Religious Beliefs. ( p.21) Christianity came early to Friesland with the dominion of the Franks in the eighth and ninth centuries, but it did not succeed in completely eradicating Indigenous tradition. Pre-Christian beliefs:Germanic folk tradition in rural areas and the forested region. They believe supernatural beings such as devils, "white ladies" who lived underground and kidnapped travelers in the night, witches, wizards, and trolls. Belief in oracles and predictive visions were common in the relatively recent past.  Paganism. The heathen Germans worshipped. Woden, sacrificed animals to Thor and Tiw. They also worshipped Freya and Nerthus. Their ancient songs tell of the earth-born god Tiusto and his son Mannus, ancestor of the whole German race. Divination played great role in their life. They invented runic devination

54. Old English Heptarchy (seven kingdoms). The role of Wessex in unifying the country. (p.25)

Inhveonses – west Germanic tribes ( Angles, Saxons , Jutes , phrases ) lived on the North Sea coast between the Rhine and the Elbe and the Jutland peninsula , whose name derives from the tribal name of Juts In the middle of V century tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes began to move to Britain. This was preceded by the following facts .

Britain was populated by tribes of the Britons , Scots and other Celtic nations. - in the Epoque of Caesar began conquest of Rome against Britain in 55-54 years BC.. - In the next century the Romans conquered the Britons. Under the rule of Rome was major teritory However, Britain was never fully conquered by the Romans. - ( 410 ) in Britain where were Roman troops, Celtic tribes of Picts and Scots attacked from the north, and on the southern shores of Britain raided the Saxons . But at the beginning of V century the Romans were forced to withdraw its troops from Britain to protect Rome from barbarian attacks . Britain had to defend (against attack Picts and Scots ) by Britons as the Romans couldnot longer keep the British forces. Then the Britons ask for help in Saxons. Angles, Saxons and Jutes, taking advantage of the weakness of the Celtic tribes , instead of protecting them , began intensive moving in the UK and pushed the local population to the north and west. That part of the Saxons, not moved to Britain, and remained on the continent, known as continental Saxons.  VIc. – they were the allies of the Franks in war against the Thuringians. After the war the Saxons spread along the middle current of the Elbe  772-804 - lost their independence after the war with the Franks  In the year 852 was formed at the territory of the East Frankish Kingdom. It became a part of Germanic nation EVENTS: According to legend , the resettlement of Germans began in 449 , under two leaders, whose name Hengest and Horsa .  The time of resettlement the germanic tribes on the British Isles (V c.) Considered the beginning of the history of English language. The Germans formed in Britain 7 kingdoms : three Saxon ( Wessex , Sussex , Essex ), three Angles ( Northumbria, Mercia , East Anglia ) and one juts (Kent) , which was created before the other kingdoms. After a long civil war supremacy among the Germanic kingdoms in Britain took Wessex. According to the political role of the Wessex - Wessexs dialect strengthened his status (in etymological dictionaries ets). In Studies typically used just wessexes forms of Old English language.  At the end of VI - in the beginning VII - Kent played a leading role. In the VII century – Northumbria. In VIII Mercia . Since the beginning of IX century. - Wessex . King of Wessex in 829 Ekbert he managed to unite into one state all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.