31. The Indo-European tree-diagram of languages: the notions of parent language, daughter languages and dialect; genetically related languages and closely related languages.

The Indo-European tree-diagram of languages: (p. 10-11)

Around 5 thousand languages are spoken in the world today. They can be grouped in different language families on the basis of genealogical principle. It is assumed that the Indo-European family of languages , has developed out of some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area. This original language is called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The people, who spoke it or who spoke languages evolved from it, are called Indo-Europeans.

The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask, Rasmus Rask and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in 1861. They established, with the help of their main method: the comparison, the definition of The language family: this is the language which is represented by a parent language and its daughters ( the divergent continuations of parent languages).

• A parent language – a language from which a later language is derived: Latin is the parent language of Italian and French.

• A daughter language. In historical linguistics, a daughter language is a language descended from another language through a process of genetic descent. Examples:

* English is a daughter language of Proto-Germanic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.

* Hindi is a daughter language of Sanskrit (/Prakrit), which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.

Dialect – a form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation

Genetically related languages – are the divergent continuation of the same earlier language.

In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family.

Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are descended from a common ancestor. The source language can be called the "ancestor language" or the "mother language", and the later languages deriving from it are called the "descendant languages" or the "daughter languages".

• Closely related lang-es – are genetically related lang-es possessing a lot of features in common, such as English and Frisian or Danish and Swedish.

32. The home of the Indo-Europeans: the existing concepts.

The traditional view has been that the Indo-Europeans were a nomadic (кочові) or semi-nomadic people, who invaded neighboring agricultural or urban areas, and imposed their languages on them. This mass migration began in about 7000 BC or according to the traditional point of view it dates back to 4000BC or later.

After 4000 BC, when the language had developed into a number of dialects, people began to expand in various directions. In the course of their expansion, the Indo-Europeans overran countries which had reached a higher level of civilization than they had themselves.

There is one technical factor, which played a role in the expansion of Indo-Europeans. This was the use of horse-drawn vehicles, which was characteristic of Indo-European society. It is possible that Indo-Europeans were ahead of time, and it was their use of wheeled vehicles, especially the fast horse-drawn chariot, that enabled them to overrun such a large part of the Eurasian continent.

There Exist different hypotheses concerning prehistorical settlement of PIE as to the primeval motherland of PIE:

1) In Northern Europe - 6 millenium (Л. Кіліан, М. Звелбіл): Scandinavia, and the adjacent parts of Northern Germany, and it was often linked with a belief that the Germanic peoples were the ‘original’ Indo-Europeans;

2) In Central Europe – 3 millenium BC (Є. Прокош) – 2 large group of tribes – Forest (2 mill BC) and Steppe. Forest: northward – Germanic, southward - Celtic, Italic, Balkan, Greek; Steppe: northward – Baltic, southward - one Thracian and Illyrian; another Phrygian, Armenian; Indic, Iranian.

3) In the Balkans ( В.І. Грегорієв І.М.Дяконов)

4) South to the Caucasis ( forced by tribes), North to the Central Mesopotamis, Armenian hypothesis – 5 millenium ( Т.М Гамкрелідзе, Вячеслав Васильович Іванов):