- •2. Word stress in Proto-Germanic and its morphological consequences.
- •Voicing of fricatives in Proto-Germanic (Verner’s Law).
- •6. The West Germanic lengthening of consonants or Germination
- •7. The second consonant-shifting (High German).
- •8. The ablaut in the Indo-European languages and Germanic languages.
- •9. The Proto-Germanic phonology. The vowels.
- •Vowel Triangle Front Back
- •Vowel system’s Processes :
- •10. The umlaut in Old Germanic languages.
- •11. The inflectional system of Proto-Germanic: general concept.
- •12. The verb categories in Old Germanic languages.
- •13. Strong verbs in Gothic language.
- •I minor class – haitan
- •II minor class – letan
- •14. The weak verbs in Old Germanic languages.
- •2. Second Weak Conjugation.
- •3. Third Weak Conjugation.
- •4. Fourth Weak Conjugation
- •15. Preterite-present verbs in Old Germanic languages.
- •16. The verbals in Old Germanic languages. Infinitive and participle: their origin and morphological categories.
- •17. Nominal parts of speech in Old Germanic languages, their morphological categories.
- •18. Old Germanic noun and its morphological categories.
- •19. The morphological structure of the noun in Proto-Germanic.
- •20. Old Germanic strong declension of nouns. P. 73
- •21. Old Germanic weak declension of nouns.
- •22. Old Germanic strong and weak declension of adjectives.
- •23. The pronoun in Old Germanic languages: its morphological categories.
- •Demonstrative
- •24. The vocabulary of Proto-Germanic. (p 101-103)
- •25. The Indo-European legacy in the Germanic vocabulary: the notion of isogloss.
- •Western branch ( Centum): Celtic, Italic (Latin), Germanic, Anatolian, Hellenic, Tocharian Eastern branch (Satem): Baltic, Slavonic, Arminian, Albenian, Aranian, Indo-aryan (Indic), Thracian
- •27. Old Germanic vocabulary: borrowings. The notions of substratum and superstratum.
- •28. Simple and composite sentence characteristics in Old Germanic languages.
- •29. The concept of the comparative method: reconstruction and asterisk. P 20.
- •30. The concept of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-European family of languages.
- •31. The Indo-European tree-diagram of languages: the notions of parent language, daughter languages and dialect; genetically related languages and closely related languages.
- •32. The home of the Indo-Europeans: the existing concepts.
- •33. The concept of Centum and Satem languages.
- •34. Old Germanic of the Indo-European languages. Basic division. The concept of Proto-Germanic.
- •35. Periodization of Old Germanic languages. Old North Germanic languages: general characteristics.
- •37. The West Germanic tree-diagram of languages.
- •38. The East Germanic branch of languages: general characteristics.
- •39. The North Germanic branch оf languages: general characteristics.
- •40. Old Germanic alphabets. The distinguished written records.
- •41. The Runic alphabet, its origin.
- •42. Old English literary monuments.
- •43. Old Icelandic and its literary monuments.
- •The Eddas
- •Skaldic poetry
- •44. Old Saxon and its written records.
- •45. Pliny’s classification of the Germanic tribes.
- •47. The age of migrations: the Visigoths.
- •49. Division of the Frankish Empire and its linguistic consequences.
- •IiIc ad…..Vc – started the creation of Frankish empire
- •50. Old Germanic mythology and beliefs (general outline).
- •Viking:
- •53. Old Frisian ethnic community: geographical, cultural, and linguistic evidence.
- •55. Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians: their original home and migration to the British Isles.
- •56. Paganism vs. Christianity in Old Germanic ethnic communities.
- •57. Old Germanic peoples’ beliefs and mythology.
30. The concept of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-European family of languages.
Around 5 thousand languages are spoken in the world today. They can be grouped in different language families on the basis of genealogical principle. It is assumed that the Indo-European family of languages , has developed out of some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area. This original language is called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The people, who spoke it or who spoke languages evolved from it, are called Indo-Europeans.
The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask, Rasmus Rask and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in 1861. They established, with the help of their main method: the comparison, the definition of The language family: this is the language which is represented by a parent language and its daughters ( the divergent continuations of parent languages).
The traditional view has been that the Indo-Europeans were a nomadic (кочові) or semi-nomadic people, who invaded neighboring agricultural or urban areas, and imposed their languages on them. This mass migration began in about 7000 BC or according to the traditional point of view it dates back to 4000BC or later.
After 4000 BC, when the language had developed into a number of dialects, зущзду began to expand in various directions. In the course of their expansion, the Indo-Europeans overran countries which had reached a higher level of civilization than they had themselves.
There is one technical factor, which played a role in the expansion of Indo-Europeans. This was the use of horse-drawn vehicles, which was characteristic of Indo-European society. It is possible that Indo-Europeans were ahead of time, and it was their use of wheeled vehicles, especially the fast horse-drawn chariot, that enabled them to overrun such a large part of the Eurasian continent.
There Exist different hypotheses concerning prehistorical settlement of PIE as to the primeval motherland of PIE:
1) In Northern Europe - 6 millenium (Л. Кіліан, М. Звелбіл): Scandinavia, and the adjacent parts of Northern Germany, and it was often linked with a belief that the Germanic peoples were the ‘original’ Indo-Europeans;
2) In Central Europe – 3 millenium BC (Є. Прокош) – 2 large group of tribes – Forest (2 mill BC) and Steppe. Forest: northward – Germanic, southward - Celtic, Italic, Balkan, Greek; Steppe: northward – Baltic, southward - one Thracian and Illyrian; another Phrygian, Armenian; Indic, Iranian.
3) In the Balkans ( В.І. Грегорієв І.М.Дяконов)
4) South to the Caucasis ( forced by tribes), North to the Central Mesopotamia, Armenian hypothesis – 5 millenium ( Т.М Гамкрелідзе, Вячеслав Васильович Іванов)
Drawbacks: not explain how relacted similarities; two languages who have a less common in a one group are also in other group.