11. Derivational analyses.

The nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word is known as its derivative structure. According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes: simple, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives. Simplexes are words which derivationally cannot’ be segmented into ICs. Derivatives are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with the meaning and the structure of the source word.

The basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are: derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns. The relations between words with a common root but of different derivative structure are known as derivative relations. The derivative and derivative relations make the subject of study at the derivational level of analysis; it aims at establishing correlations between different types of words, the structural and semantic patterns words are built on, the study also enables one to understand how new words appear in the language.

Derivational base: is defined as the constituent to which a rule of word-formation is applied. Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes:

1) bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees of complexity, e.g. dutiful, dutifully; day-dream, to day-dream, daydreamer.

Derivationally the stems may be:

• simple, which consist of only one, semantically non motivated constituent (pocket, motion, retain, horrible).

• derived stems are semantically and structurally motivated, and are the results of the application of word-formation rules (girl – girlish, to weekend, to daydream)

• compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated (match-box, letter-writer)

2) bases that coincide with word-forms; e.g. paper-bound, unsmiling, unknown. This class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms — the present and the past participles.

3) bases that coincide with word-grоups of different degrees of stability, e ,g. second-rateness, flat-waisted, etc. This class is made of word-groups. Bases of this kind are most active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns, e.g. blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-fashioned, do-gooder, etc.

Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech. Derivational affixes possess two basic functions: 1) that of stem-building and 2) that of word-building. In most cases derivational affixes perform both functions simultaneously. It is true that the part-of-speech meaning is proper in different degrees to the derivational suffixes and prefixes. It stands out clearly in derivational suffixes but it is less evident in prefixes; some prefixes lack it altogether. Prefixes like en-, un-, de-, out-, be-, unmistakably possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers. The prefix over-evidently lacks the part-of-speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, the same may be said about non-, pre-, post-.

Derivational patterns: A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.

There are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and individual affixes, and structural-semantic that specify semantic peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix. DPs of different levels of generalisation signal: 1) the class of source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation between different classes of words; 2) the part of speech of the derivative; 3) the lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.

The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself is the 1)part of speech formed:

• Noun-suffixes (-er, -dom, -ness, -ation)

• Adjective-suffixes (-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous)

• Verb-suffixes (-en, -fy, -ise)

• Adverb-suffixes (-ly, -ward)

2) Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to:

• deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);

• denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.);

• de-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.).

3) A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by a set of suffixes:

• the agent of an action, e.g. -er, -ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);

• appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian, -ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.);

• collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry), etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.);

• diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let, -ling, etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squireling, wolfling, etc.).

4) From the angle of stylistic reference:

• those characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able, -er, -ing, etc.;

• those having a certain stylistic value such as -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron, etc.

5) Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.

Productivity: Distinction is usually made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words; they have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence completely, e.g. -d in dead, seed, -le, -1, -el in bundle, sail, hovel; -ock in hillock; -lock in wedlock; -t in flight, gift, height. Living affixes may be easily singled out from a word, e.g. the noun-forming suffixes -ness, -dom, -hood, -age, -ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood, marriage, assistance, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, -ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, Stony, etc.

Origin: the division is make between native and foreign affixes, e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ish, -dom and the prefixes be-, mis-, un- are of native origin, whereas such suffixes as -ation, -ment, -able and prefixes like dis-, ex-, re- are of foreign origin.

Many of the suffices and prefixes of native origin were originally independent words (-hood = OE state, -dom = OE judgement, -ly = OE body). In the course of its historical development the English language has adopted a great many suffixes and prefixes from foreign languages. Among borrowed derivational affixes we find both suffixes, e.g. -able, -ible, -al, -age, -ance, -ist, -ism, -ess, etc., and prefixes, e.g. dis-, en[em]-, inter-, re-, non- and many others.

The adoption of foreign words influence the system of English word-formation, so Hybrid words appear: 1) Cases when a foreign stem is combined with a native affix, as in colourless, uncertain. 2) Cases when native stems are combined with foreign affixes, such as drinkable, joyous, shepherdes