Appendix 3

Reported verbs

NEUTRAL: verbs used to say what the writer describes in factual terms, demonstrates, refers to, and discusses, and verbs used to explain his/her methodology.	describe, show, reveal, study, demonstrate, note, point out, indicate, report, observe, assume, take into consideration, examine, go on to say that, state, believe (unless this is a strong belief), mention, etc.
TENTATIVE: verbs used to say what the writer suggests or speculates on (without being absolutely certain).	suggest, speculate, intimate, hypothesise, moot, imply, propose, recommend, posit the view that, question the view that, postulate, etc.
STRONG: verbs used to say what the writer makes strong arguments and claims for.	argue, claim, emphasise, contend, maintain, assert, theorize, support the view that, deny, negate, refute, reject, challenge, strongly believe that, counter the view/argument that, etc.

Rules for the Change of Adverbs in Indirect Speech

Besides the changes in the tenses and the pronouns, words expressing nearness in direct speech are changed into words expressing distance in indirect speech. The rules are as follows:

This will change into that. These will change into those. Here will change into there. Now/just will change into then. Today will change into that day.

Ago will change into before. Yesterday will change into the previous day or the day before. Last night will change into the previous night or the night before. Tomorrow will change into the next day. The next day/week/year will change into the following day/week/year. Hence will change into thence. Thus will change into so or in that way.

Appendix 4 Abbreviations

In scientific writing, there are a number of abbreviations in use which originate from Latin or Greek. In general it is not a good idea to use too many of these within the body of your writing, but they can be used occasionally when needed, and they are often necessary in your references and bibliography.

Below is a selection of common abbreviations and their English equivalents.

abbreviation		Latin words in full		meaning
AD		anno Domini		since the birth of Christ
a.m.		ante meridiem		in the morning
BC	before Christ
c. or ca.		circa		approximately, about (for dates)
cf.		confer		compare
e.g.		exempli gratia		for example, for instance
et al.		et alii / et alia		and others
etc.		et cetera		and so on, and the rest
et seq.		et sequens		and the following pages
ibid.		ibidem		in the same place / book
i.e.		id est		that is, in other words
inter alia			among other things
loc.cit.		loco citato		in the place mentioned
NB		nota bene		note well (for an important point)
op. cit.		opere citato		in the work mentioned before
p.a.		per annum		a year, each year
per capita			per head
p.m.		post meridiem		in the afternoon, evening
passim			at various points in the book, recurrent
q.v.		quod vide		see in another place in the same book (for a cross-reference)
v. / vs.		versus		against
viz.		videlicet		namely (naming something you have just referred to

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