2. The process of development and change of meaning

The second question is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, or at least its essential features.

Stalls and box formed their meanings in which they denoted parts of the theatre on the basis of a different type of association. The meaning of the word box “a small separate enclosure forming a part of the theatre” developed on the basis of its former meaning “a rectangular container used for packing or storing things”. The two objects became associated in the speakers’ minds because boxes in the earliest English theatres really resembled packing cases.

The association on which the theatrical meaning of stalls was based is more curious. The original meaning was “compartments in stables or sheds for cows, horses, etc”.There does not seem to be much in common between the privileged and expensive part of a theatre and stables intended for cows and horses, unless we take into consideration the fact that theatres in olden times greatly differed from what they are now. What is now known as the stalls was, at that time, standing space divided by barriers into sections so as to prevent the enthusiastic crowd from knocking one another down and hurting themselves. So, there must have been a certain outward resemblance between theatre stalls and cattle stalls.

The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is termed transference.

Two types of transference are depending on the two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process.

3. Transference based on resemblance (similarity)

This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity. Box and stall are examples of this type of transference.

Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the association of two physical objects. The noun eye, for instance, has for one of its meanings “hole in the end of a needle” (cf. with the R. ушко иголки), which also developed through transference based on resemblance. A similar case is represented by the neck of a bottle.

The noun star on the basis of the meaning “heavenly body” developed the meaning “famous actor or actress”. Nowadays the meaning has considerably widened its range, and the word is applied not only to screen idols, but, also, to popular sportsmen (e.g. football stars), pop-singers, etc.

The meanings formed through this type of transference are frequently found in the informal strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang. A red-headed boy is almost certain to be nicknamed carrot or ginger (рыжий) by his schoolmates, and the one who is given to spying and sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat. Both these meanings are metaphorical, though, the children using them are quite unconscious of this fact.

The slang meanings of words such as nut, onion (= head), saucers (= eyes) and very many others were all formed by transference based on resemblance.