3. International words

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.

Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, e.g. philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, biology, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, artist. Political terms also frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, comminism.

20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is a Russian borrowing.

The English language also contributed a considrable number of international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball, baseball, tennis, golf, etc.

Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too and become international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango.

4. Etymological doublets

The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt is a scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: both denote articles of clothing.

Such words as these two originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets.

Etymological triplets (i.e. groups of three words of common root) occur rarer: hospital (Lat) – hostel (Norm. Fr.) – hotel (Par. Fr.), to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm. Fr.) – to chase.(Par. Fr.).

A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was derived: history – story, fantasy – fancy, fanatic – fan.

5. Translation-loans

The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. Translation-loans are borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonetic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from Germ. Meisterstück), wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind).

6. Interrelations between etymological and stylistic characteristics of English words

Is it possible to establish regular associations between any of the groups of etymological classification and the stylistic classification of English vocabulary? The answer must be in the affirmative.

It is quite natural to expect to find a considerable number of native words in the basic vocabulary, if we remember that the latter comprises words denoting essential objects and phenomena. Yet, one should keep in mind that among basic vocabulary words there are also rather numerous Latin and French borrowings. Words like very, air, hour, cry, cat, pay, box, face, dress are of foreign origin despite their native appearance and common use. So it would be correct to state that, though native words prevail in the basic vocabulary, this stratum also comprises a considerable number of old borrowings which have become so fully adapted to the English language system that they are practically indistinguishable from the native stock.

The centre of gravity of borrowed words in the stylistic classification is represented by two groups: learned words and terminology. In these strata the foreign element dominates the native. It also seems that the whole opposition of “formal versus informal” is based on the deeper underlying opposition of “borrowed versus native”, as the informal strata, especially slang and dialect, abound in native words.

Comparing the expressive and stylistic value of the French and the English words in such synonymic pairs as to begin – to commence, to wish – to desire, we can see that the French word is usually more formal.

The truth of this observation becomes more obvious if we regard certain pairs within which a native word may be compared with its Latin synonym: motherly – maternal, fatherly – paternal.

Answer these questions.

1. Which conditions stimulate the borrowing process?

2. Why are words borrowed?

3. What stages of assimilation do borrowings go through?

4. In what spheres of communication do international words frequently occur?

5. What do we understand by etymological doublets?

6. What are the characteristic features of translation-loans?

7. How are the etymological and stylistic characteristics of words interrelated?