Числова_английский
.pdf8 a) Read and translate the text paying attention to Emperor's activity. You'll need this information for the next assignment.
The Augustan Age
The Augustan age, in its direct historical sense, is a period in the history of ancient Rome during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the most flourishing period in the culture of the Roman state when Latin literature reached its climax.
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus (63 B.C. - A.D.14), the nephew of Julius Caesar, became the first Roman emperor, occupying the throne from 27 B.C. to his death.
He was a great statesman, a very shrewd and clever politician. While being nominally a princeps i.e. 'the first among equals', his power depended largely on public opinion, and
Octavian Augustus took great pains to influence public opinion in his own favour while standing his ground firmly. For instance, he restored many customs, traditions and institutions of the Roman republic, the effect of which action was substantially lessened by his nominating himself or someone of his family as the head of all those institutions.
Augustus encouraged the building of beautiful marble temples and palaces, thus providing commissions for many architects and sculptors; but it is worth remembering that the temples and other public edifices were to glorify Augustus and his 'divine' descent.
Poetry and literature are very important means of influencing public opinion, and patronage of poets and writers was in fact a part of Augustus' national policy carried out by Gaius Maecenas, the emperor's friend and adviser (whose name has come to mean a generous patron of literature and art). The best-known poets of the period are Virgil, with his chief work 'Aeneid', an epic poem of the Roman people describing the adventures of
Aeneas and his Trojans; Horace, with his 'Satires', 'Odes', etc.; Ovid, whose major work is
'Metamorphoses'; Tibullus, a lyrical poet. Of the historians, the most celebrated is Titus Livy, who wrote a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the 9th century B.C.
The term 'Augustan Age' is applied in English literary history to the beginning of 18th century when English poets translated Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid.
Notes:
Augustus [ɔ:'gʌstʌs],
Augustan [ɔ:'gʌstən],
Octavian [ɔk'teivjən], Virgil ['və:ʤ il],
Horace ['hɔrəs], Aeneid ['i:niid],
Aeneas [i(:)'ni:жs],
'Ovid,
Metamorphoses [,metə'mɔ:fouziz], satire ['sжtaiə],
Trojan ['trouʤən], Tibullus [ti'bʌləs], Titus Livy ['taitəs 'livi],
climax ['klaiməks], princeps ['prinseps], edifice ['edifis],
patron ['peitrən], patronage ['pжtrɔnidz], Maecenas [mi'si:nəs]
8 b) Make up a dialogue by translating the following questions into English and supplying the answers.
1.Какой период в истории древнего Рима называют 'веком Августа'?
2.Чем прославился 'век Августа'?
3.Можете лм вы назвать годы жизни императора Августа?
4.Что можно сказать о внутренней политике Августа?
5.Какую роль играла литература в период его правления?
Cправедливо ли называть это время золотым веком римской литературы?
6. |
Кто такой Меценат? |
7. |
Кого из прославленных поэтов того времени вы можете назвать? |
8.Что вам известно о поэме "Энеида" и ее авторе?
9.Какое время называют 'веком Августа' в английской литературе.
9.Translate the following text in writing.
The two greatest poets of Ancient Rome, Virgil and Horace, and their promoters,
Augustus and Maecenas, all came to light within a very few years (70-63). Augustus was the youngest, and Virgil possibly the oldest.
The relation between Virgil and Homer is particularly close, because the former imitated the latter. This is a magnificent example of the dependence of the Roman genius upon the Greek. Even as Lucretius and Cicero explained Greek philosophy in Latin, so did Virgil create a Latin epic, the 'Aeneid', that was modelled upon Greek patterns, the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'. The ancients admired Homer so much and knew him so well that learned
Romans were led into fantastic belief that Rome had been founded by descendants of the
Trojan kings. The 'Aeneid' was the mature development of that legend. From its point of view the 'Iliad' was a kind of introduction not only to Greek history, but to Roman.
10. Test. Read the text (you are given 3 minutes). Be ready to fulfil the assignments.
Although the period that we call the Renaissance began in Italy in the fourteenth century, this idea of rebirth in learning characterized other epochs in history in different parts of the world.
In 800 A.D. Charlemagne [‘ʃa:lə‘mein] became king of the Franks and initiated the
Carolingian [kжrə‘laigiən] Renaissance, a period which saw beautiful and more modern cities patterned on Roman architecture. His improvements in instruction for boys expanded the educational system, helped maintain Roman culture, and continued a society in
Western Europe, as well as created libraries (a carryover from Alexandrian Egypt of 323 B.C.).
Kievan Russia also enjoyed a period of rebirth some 200 years later under the able rule of Yaroslav the Wise. Like Charlemagne, he founded schools, established libraries, and brough about many architectural achievements.
Test
1.Which was the earliest period of rebirth mentioned?
a)Russian, b) Italian, c) Carolingian, d) Roman.
2.Which city did Charlemagne look upon as model for his architectural improvements?
a)Kiev, b) Rome, c) Carolingian, d) Frank.
3.Which of the following was not mentioned as a characteristic of the Renaissance movement?
a)maintaining the status quo,
b)improved education,
c)architectural advances,
d)creation of libraries.
4.How many centuries separated the Kievan and the Italian Renaissance?
a) 2, b) 3, c) 4, d) 5.
5.What can we assume about Yaroslav?
a)He was demented.
b)He was a competent leader.
c)He was inept.
d)He was cruel.
6.The word ‘carryover’ in this selection most nearly means
a)remnant, b) residue, c) innovation, d) barbarism.
Vocabulary Study
11.Complete the list of words from the texts which are essential for discussing:
a)methods of instruction; b) the life of Egyptian scribe; c) Spartan Education.
12.Write out all the words from the texts which can help describe the role and significance of education in early times.
Speech Practice
13. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class:
•Early education in Greece and Rome.
•The importance of being properly educated in ancient world.
•Heritage of Greek and Roman literature.
14. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above.
Composition
15. 1. What useful methods of instruction can be borrowed from the ancient systems of education?
2.The importance of being properly educated nowadays. (Give your reasons).
ROLEPLAY
You are a philologist who is interested in handwriting of Columbus. Tell your colleagues what you think about Columbus’ monogram.
HANDWRITING OF COLUMBUS
Columbus used a sevenlettered monogram in connection with his ordinary signature. The significance of these seven letters remains unclear. However, Columbus considered his monogram especially important and provided that his heirs forever employ its form.
“Don Diego, my son, or any other who shall inherit this entail, after inheriting and coming into possession of the same, shall sign with my signature which I now employ which is an X with an S over it and an M with a Roman A over it and over that an S and then a Greek Y with an
S over it, preserving the relations of the lines and the punctuation.” The heirs did not follow his instructions and Columbus never revealed the meaning of this cipher.
Only the bottom line varied from its usual Xpo FERENS, a half Greek and a half Latin form of Columbus (“bearer for Christ”) to the occasional, “el Admirante” meaning the “Admiral”, as shown above. A number of documents and letters bearing
Columbus’s unique signature have been preserved.
The Admiral generally marked a cross at the head of any piece of paper on which he was to write. According to his son, Ferdinand, he began all his writings in
Latin with “Jesus cum Maria sit nobis in via” which means “May Jesus and Mary be with us in our way.” Unfortunately, these words do not aid in deciphering his monogram. Although there has been much speculation, it is unlikely that any accurate meaning will be discovered.
UNIT 8 ANCIENT GREECE AND ANCIENT ROME
Before you start:
What was ancient Rome famous for?
What prominent Roman rulers do you know?
What is the birthplace of 'democracy'?
What person was 'democracy' connected with for the first time in ancient Greece.
1 a) Read, translate the text in writing with the help of a dictionary, and be ready to express the main idea of the
text.
Polybius and Rome's Eastern Policy |
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'Who,' Polybius asks, 'is so worthless and so indolent as |
not to want to know by |
what means and under what constitution system the Romans |
in less than 53 years |
have succeeded in subjecting nearly the whole inhabited world to the sole government - a thing unique in history?'
It is perhaps not unfair to judge a historian by the degree of success he attains in tackling his main theme. If that seems a reasonable proposition, we may ask ourselves: Does Polybius in fact offer a satisfactory answer to the question he has raised?
From one point of view it is, of course, quite obvious that if he had given an answer that
was entirely |
satisfactory to everybody, generations |
of later historians from the Roman |
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annalists onward would not have occupied their time furnishing alternative explanations. |
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But Polybius |
himself is |
a more serious problem, |
since as |
a historian |
specifically |
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concerned with Roman world power, he |
should have been applying stricter criteria. There |
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are, however, |
several reasons why Polybius has committed himself to an interpretation |
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of Roman policy which is |
inconsistent with the detailed narrative which his |
honesty and |
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sincerity have led him to write. In the first place, Polybius was |
also a Greek and he |
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therefore began with the |
assumptions |
a Greek would naturally make about the normal |
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tendency of imperial states to expand. |
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So, I have not attempted to disguise his |
shortcomings. On the one hand, a disposition to |
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arrange events in a schematic form - one-sided concept of cause which he produces in |
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explanation of the outbreak of various wars - on the other his |
conviction that the rise of |
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Rome was |
a transcendental affair. But a history is not necessarily the worse because it is |
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sustained by a conviction that it |
reveals |
a purpose; |
and |
perhaps |
without |
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Demetrius |
[di’mi:triəs] |
of |
Phalerum [‘fжlərəm] and Polybius' belief that he had |
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witnessed the unfolding of a |
superhuman plan there would have been no H i s t o r i e s - |
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certainly no Histories |
in the form we have them today. At least we can congratulate |
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ourselves that the dichotomy in his |
thought and writing is |
so clear to detect and that the |
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detailed events can tell their |
own story independently of the author's views |
about the |
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purpose of |
Providence. |
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Despite the contradictions |
in |
his |
thought, we are left with the truism that Polybius' |
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narrative still remains |
the essential basis |
for any reconstruction of Roman policy during |
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these critical years. |
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1 b) Give the English equivalents of the following:
быть никчемным, никудышним; единоличное правление; справедливо судить, оценивать; предложить убедительный (удовлетворительный) ответ; с одной точки
зрения; поколения поздних историков; летописец; более строгий критерий; взять на себя обязательства; правдивость и искренность; скрывать чьи-то недостатки; с
одной стороны ... с другой стороны; одностороннее понятие; независимо от взглядов автора; существенный (отправной) пункт.
1 c) Complete the following:
1. Polybius wrote his most important book about ...
2.The main problem Polybius discussed was ...
3.It's not unfair to judge a historian by ...
4.If he had given a satisfactory answer ...
5. Polybius himself is a more serious problem ...
6.Polybius was a Greek and began with the assumptions ...
7.We can congratulate ourselves that ...
2 a) Listen to the dialogue and take the part of B.
- As far as I know, in the 1st century B.C. the Roman Empire became the strongest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean.
=You are quite right. It was the last and the greatest of the civilizations of the ancient world. The Romans ruled all the civilized world and in the 1st century A.D. they conquered
Britain.
- What differed Roman society from the others ?
=It was a slave society divided into classes: the slaves and the slave-owners.
The slave-owners made up the minority of the population but they owned the land, tools, buildings and slaves. The slaves possessed neither land nor tools and they could be bought and sold, kept in chains, whipped or put to death.
- Without doubt slavery was the most inhuman form of exploitation. The slave-owners appropriated almost all the results of the slaves' labour, therefore the slaves were not interested in the results of their labour.
= By the way what were the functions of the Government bodies ?
- Overseers forced the slaves |
to work more. The disobedient slaves were severely |
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punished. Government bodies issued acts |
beneficial to the |
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exploiters. With the help of the army the |
slave-owners put down the uprising of the |
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exploited. The army also helped the |
slave-owners to protect their riches against foreign |
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enemies and to wage endless |
wars |
in order to conquer new lands and to seize more |
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slaves.
= By what means did the Roman secure their position in the conquered countries, e.g. in Britain?
- The Romans had to set up many camps to defend their provinces and station their legions. Straight roads were built so that the legions might
march quickly whenever they were needed. The roads were made so well that they lasted a long time and still exist today.
=Did the Roman build only roads?
-Oh, no. Bridges of stone were built whenever a road crossed a river, some of these bridges can still be found in Britain today. Besides, to guard the province against the
Picts and Scots who lived in the hills of Scotland a high wall was built in the North. It was called "Hadrian's Wall" because it was built by command of the Emperor Hadrian. From one end of the wall to the other forts were built a mile apart. But the most interesting fact was that the civilized Romans were city dwellers, and as soon as they had conquered Britain they began to build towns, splendid villas, and public baths as in Rome itself.
= So we can say that the Roman conquest of Britain brought positive results to the native people.
- We can't give one reply to this statement. On the one hand the Romans brought high civilization to the British Isles, but on the other they also brought exploitation and slavery to the native people.
2 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: "If I'm not mistaken..." or "If my memory doesn't fail me..."
1. The Roman Empire was one of the strongest slaveowning states in the 1st century B.C.
2.Slaves made up the majority of the population.
3.The minority of the population possessed neither land nor tools.
4.Slaves were interested in the results of their labour.
5.The acts issued by the government bodies were beneficial to the exploited.
6.The only duty of the army was to put down uprisings.
7.Today we can't see the remnants of roads, bridges, towns built by the Romans.
2 c) Characterize the slave-owning system and compare it with the primitive community.
3.Read the text (you are given 3 minutes) and give the reasons for the weakening and fall of the Roman Empire. Explain these reasons to your classmates.
The Fall of the Roman Empire
In the 3rd-4th centuries the power of the Roman Empire gradually weakened. The unproductive labour of the slaves led to the economic decline of the empire. Neither new method of land cultivation nor new technical inventions were introduced. Slavery became an obstacle to technical progress. Poor cultivation exhausted the fields, the harvests became poorer from year to year.
The uninterrupted struggle of the exploited against the slave-owners greatly weakened the Roman Empire too. The enormous number of slaves presented a great danger to the
Roman Empire. The end of the 4th century found the Germanic tribes invading the
Western Roman Empire and the slaves who hated the Roman state were joining them by the thousand.
Early in the 5th century (407), the Roman legions were recalled from Britain to defend the central provinces of the Roman Empire from the attacks of the barbarian tribes.
During the 5th century the Germanic tribes overran the empire and settled in all parts of it. The fall of the Western Roman Empire meant the end of the slave-owning system in Western Europe.
Notes :
to weaken - ослабевать decline - упадок neither... nor - ни ... ни
obstacle - препятствие, помеха
to exhaust [ig'zɔ:st] - истощать
The end of the 4th century found the Germanic tribes invading - В конце
IV века германские племена вторгались…
4 a) Read, translate the text, and remember as much as possible. You'll need the information while speaking about Caesar.
The Republic Defends Itself
When Caesar's tour of duty in Gaul ended, the Senate ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome alone. Shortly afterwards Caesar sent back the reply: "If Pompey disbands his army I shall do the same". But Pompey would not disband his
army, and a fierce struggle between the two great men began. It was a struggle for absolute power.
In 49 B.C. Caesar led his army on Rome and reached the Rubicon River. If he led his army across the river, he would break the Roman law, but if he went to Rome alone, they would kill him. For a moment Caesar was undecided. Then saying, "The die is cast" he led his troops into the water. The Senate was caught unawares. As soon as the news came that Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, a meeting of the Senate was hastily called to
discuss |
the situation and take the necessary measures. As a result, Pompey was |
offered the supreme command of the Republic's army. |
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It was |
decided that all the forces of the Republic should be concentrated in the South, |
and Pompey set out promptly southwards. Some time passed and one afternoon young
Julius Caesar suddenly turned up in Rome. Pompey realised that it was too late for his hastily-collected detachments, to enter the city captured by his opponent. So he had to retreat. Finally he was completely defeated, and Caesar became master of Rome and the rest of Italy. After the conquest of Gaul it was Caesar's second great victory.
Having defeated all his opponents Caesar came to Rome and called himself emperor. By the way, in Latin the word "emperor" means "ruler" and at that time was only used for military commanders. Caesar was like a king. He sat on a chair made of ivory and gold.
His statues were set side by side with those of gods and goddesses.
Some of the senators, however, disliked the way he ruled. Besides, they were afraid of the autocratic ruler. They organized a plot against him with Brutus[‘bru:təs] and Cassius
[‘kжsiəs] at the head. On 15th of March, 44 B.C. during one of the Senate sessions the plotters drew out their swords which they had hidden under their togas, and killed him.
All those present at the session ran away in a panic.
Notes :
Caesar ['si:zə]
tour of duty - зд. срок полномочий
Gaul [gɔ:l]
order - приказывать, приказ to return - возвращаться reply - отвечать, ответ
to disband -распускать, расформировывать would not disband - так и не распустил
to break the law - нарушать закон decide - решать, принимать решение
to take measure ['meʒə] - предпринимать меры troops - войска
to set out = to start off capture - захватить, захват
retreat - отступать, отступление
defeat - наносить поражение, поражение the rest of - остальная часть
ivory ['aivəri] - слоновая кость
autocratic [,ɔ:tə'krжtik] - самодержавный plot – заговор
4 b) Answer the following question :
1.What did the Senate order Caesar to do after his tour of duty in
Gaul ended?
2. What reply did Caesar send?
3.What did Caesar's refusal lead to?
4.Did he cross the Rubicon? Was it legal?
5.What happened when the news about Caesar reached the Senate?
6.Who was made commander of the Republic's troops?
7.Where did the Senate decide all the military forces of the Republic should be concentrated?
8.Why did Pompey have to retreat?
9.Later he was completely defeated, wasn't he?
10.What finally became of Caesar?
4 c) Listen to and correct the wrong statements. Start with:
"I don't think it was really so" or "I'm not sure" or "I doubt."
1.When Caesar's tour of duty in Gaul ended, he led his army to Spain
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to help Pompey. |
2.The Senate ordered Caesar to raise an army and bring it to Rome. |
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3. |
Pompey disbanded his army and reached the Rubicon. |
4. |
After a long discussion of the situation in the Senate it was decided that |
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Crassus should be made commander of the Republic's army. |
5.When Caesar turned up in Rome, Pompey realized that it was the right time to enter the city.
6.Finally Pompey won the victory over Caesar and became Emperor.
4 d) Could you tell your classmates what you know about Caesar (his biography, his military victories, his literary career, his death).
4 e) Arrange the following in the pairs of antonyms:
1)military, to leave, powerful, to suffer a defeat, to observe the law, right, to retreat;
2)powerless, to break the law, to advance, civilian, wrong, to win a victory, to come.
5 a) Read and translate the story;
Pompey was one of the greatest Roman soldiers, a talented state man and a diplomat. In the 60's of the 1st century B.C., he played a leading role in the political life of Rome.
While the Romans were suffering under the rule of Sulla, he was away in Africa,
defeating the enemies of Rome. Six years later Pompey suppressed [sə'prest] an uprising of gladiators.
Gladiators were people who were given arms and made to fight against each other in the arena for the amusement of the spectators. In later years they were forced to fight for their lives against wild animals. Many of the gladiators were Gauls and barbarians. There were schools in Rome where they were trained.
One day a number of men ran from one of the schools and encamped on Mount Vesuvius. Here they were joined by other gladiators and slaves and became a great force. They easily defeated the Roman army which was sent by the Senate to fight against them. It was Pompey who finally put down the revolt: by his order tens of thousands of slaves were captured and put to death.
After his victorious campaigns in the East, which led to complete Roman domination
over Asia Minor, he returned to Rome and formed the first triumvirate [triai'ʌmvirit] together with Caesar and Crassus. But he had never expected that Caesar would soon become his enemy and defeat him.
5 b) make an outline of the story, showing: Pompey as a good soldier, Gladiators as a great force, Pompey's victories, the
First Triumvirate.
6a) Read, translate, entitle the text, and get its main idea.
For the phenomenon as complex as democracy, its first appearance is remarkably easy to pinpoint: the city-state of Athens in the fifth century B.C. Periclean Athens, named for its most celebrated leader, inspired generations of later political theorists and statesmen. Yet many aspects of Athenian democracy appear strange and unfamiliar to modern eyes.
The central political institution in Athens of the sixth and fifth century B.C. was the Assembly, usually composed of 5,000 to 6,000 members , and open to all adult male citizens. (Women, slaves and foreigners were excluded.) By simple majority vote, the
Assembly could decide virtually any domestic issue without any legal restrictions. Trials
were conducted by juries of 501 citizens |
who also decided guilt or innocence by majority |
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vote. |
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Perhaps most remarkably, the leaders |
of the Assembly were not elected, but chosen |
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by lot, since Athenians believed that any citizen was |
capable of holding public office. Not |
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that there were many such offices to fill: generals |
were elected for one-year terms, but |
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otherwise Periclean Athens lacked any |
recognizable executive institutions such as |
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president, prime minister, Cabinet or permanent civil service. The weight of decisionmaking fell almost exclusively upon the citizen-members of the Assembly - a burden of public service that most people today would find unacceptable.
Without constitutional limits, the Athens of Pericles was prone to factionalism and manipulation by shrewd or eloquent orators. It was democratic Athens, after all, which condemned to death the philosopher Socrates - thereby earning the undying enmity of
Socrates' most celebrated pupil and fervent antidemocrat, Plato.
Despite its enemies and weaknesses, Athenian democracy was no fragile flower. It endured for approximately 200 years - surviving even defeat in the Peloponnesian War in
404 B.C. at the hands of its archrival, Sparta.
Notes :
to pinpoint - определять точное положение
virtually ['və:tjuəli] - фактически trial - суд
jury ['ʤ uəri] - присяжные guilt ['gilt] - вина, виновность
innocence ['inəsns] - невиновность lot - жребий
to hold -зд. владеть
to lack - зд. не иметь, отсутствовать executive [ig'zekjutiv] - исполнительный
burden ['bə:dn] - ноша, бремя
to be prone to - быть склонным к
factionalism ['fжkʃənəlizm] - фракционность hrewd [ ru:d] - зд. искусный, находчивый
eloquent ['eləkwənt] - красноречивый
to condemn to death - осуждать на смерть earn ['ə:n] - зарабатывать
undying [ʌn'daiin] - бессмертный enmity ['enmiti] - вражда, неприязнь
fervent ['fə:vənt] - ревностный, ярый