Числова_английский
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Inca Calendar May Be Hidden in Shrines
- There is an interesting article in the 'Herald Tribune'.
= What is its title?
- "Inca calendar may be hidden in shrines." = Isn't it about the ancient civilizations?
- You are right. From a study of early Spanish chronicles and of the layout
of Cuzco [kuzkə], capital of the Incas, a specialist in Andean archaeology has concluded that the shrines around that ancient city, the design of its central temple and even the "spring run" described by the chroniclers, were all closely linked to the Inca calendar.
= What is the name of this specialist?
- The researcher is Mr.Vescelius, who has taught at the City University of New York. From his analysis of the calendar he has also proposed radical revisions in the chronology of Andean history prior to the
crushing of the Incas by the Spanish conquistadors [kɔn’kwistədɔ:z].
=Were the results of his work published anywhere?
-His thesis was recently presented to the Columbia University seminar on primitive and pre-Columbian art.
=What is the attitude of other scientists toward his hypothesis?
-Specialists said that, while the hypothesis was speculative, it brought
together many previously puzzling aspects of what is known of Inca culture.
=But hadn't scientists enough evidence of the Mayas and the Incas?
-Unlike the Mayas, the Incas had no well-developed system of writing. Knowledge of their history and of their calendar is incomplete, being largely dependent on chronicles written by Spanish visitors. Among the puzzling features of those accounts was the "spring run" for which, on
the vernal equinox [‘və:nl ‘i:kwinɔks], 400 runners assembled in the central square of Cuzco in what is now Peru.
=Certainly there were some earlier sources than that of Spanish visitors, weren't there?
-Mr. Vescelius suspects that the initial runners were assigned to 328 shrines whose distribution around the city and its suburbs was, in effect, a manifestation of the calendar. The shrine location, and the manner of their maintenance by the Cuzco families, some royal and plebeian, were described by the chroniclers. A large number of these shrines, according to the chronicles, lay along a series of 41 lines or sequences which, in general, radiated from Cuzco.
=What conclusion did the scientist come to?
-He believes that each shrine represented one day of the year. Each line represented a week. And each recurring triplet of lines was a month. It is known that the Inca year was divided into 12 months of three weeks each. If, for each week, there was a "sabbath" not represented by a shrine, those 36 days, plus one special festive day and the 328 days for which there were shrines, would add up to 365, representing a full year.
=I am very much interested in this subject. Could you give me this article for a couple of days.
- With pleasure. Here it is.
10. Do the following two-way translation.
All The Calendars Are Lying
- What character in a world-famous play said "All the calendars are lying"? Was the person who said it wrong?
=Вы, конечно, помните, что эти слова из бессмертной (immortal) грибоедовской комедии "Горе от ума" (“Woe of Wits”). Как ни парадоксально, но старуха Хлестова,
оказывается, была права.
-Do the Gregorian and the true solar calendar coincide?
=Григорианский календарь далек от совершенства (perfection). Астрономы убедились (made certain of), что наш календарь отстает ежегодно (is annually left behind by) от истинного солнечного примерно на три секунды.
-When and how will the difference between the two calendars tell?
=Расхождение невелико. Полные сутки (twenty-four-hour period) набегут лишь в 4915
году. Значит, в тогдашнем феврале окажется 30 дней. Впервые "куцый (short) месяц", который древние посвящали теням предков, станет полноправным, таким
же, как апрель или сентябрь.
-What is bad about being born on February 30, 4915?
=Плохо тому, кому доведется (will happen to) появиться на свет в тот уникальный день: следующий свой день рождения он сможет отпраздновать только через 3333
года!
-What is the principal inconvenience of the Gregorian calendar?
=Разумеется (it goes without saying), не только этим не удобен наш нынешний
календарь. Гораздо больше мешает (hinders) то обстоятельство, что после каждого
високосного года (leap year) в нем меняется общее количество рабочих дней: первое января падает то на воскресенье, то на среду.
=Is it reasonable to believe that in time the Gregorian calendar will be replaced by a new type of calendar? Is anything being done?
-Сейчас в мире существует около 200 совершенно разных проектов реформы календаря. При ООН работает даже "календарная" комиссия. Пока (For the present)
ею признаны самыми приемлемыми (are admitted as the most acceptable) два
варианта.
=Do you know of any practical suggestions to change the present-day calendar for the better? What are they?
-Первый таков: год будет состоять из 13 месяцев, по 28 дней в каждом. Тогда
одним и тем же дням недели будут соотвествовать одни и те же числа. Но в году
окажется лишь 364 дня. Куда исчез 365-й? Это будет день без числа. День нового года. Сторонников (Supporters) второго проекта вполне устраивают (agreed with) 12
месяцев в году. Причем год разбивается на равные кварталы. В каждом - два месяца
по 30 дней, а третий - 31. И также устанавливается единый день отдыха - день после 31 декабря. 1 января каждого года тоже обязательно будет выходным.
=Why hasn't the new calendar been introduced as yet?
-Остановка теперь за малым. (A tiny thing is holding us up). Любой из новых проектов можно будет ввести лишь после согласия всех стран мира, которое далеко еще не достигнуто (far from having been achieved).
11 a) Test. Read, translate the text (you are given 7 minutes) and be ready to fulfil the tasks.
Sequoyah [si’kwɔiə] was a young Cherokee Indian, the son of a white trader and an
Indian squaw (an American Indian woman). At an early age, he became fascinated by "the talking leaf," an expression that he used to describe the white man's written records.
Although many believed this "talking leaf" to be a gift from the Great Spirit, Sequoyah refused to accept that theory. Like other Indians of the period, he was illiterate, but his
determination to remedy the situation led to the invention of a unique 86-character alphabet based on the sound patterns that he heard.
His family and friends thought him mad, but while recovering from a hunting accident, he diligently and independently set out to create a form of communication for his own people as well as for other Indians. In 1821, after twelve years of work, he had successfully developed a written language that would enable thousands of Indians to read and write.
Sequoyah's desire to preserve words and events for later generations has caused him to be remembered among the important inventors. The giant redwood trees of California, called "sequoias" in his honor, will further imprint his name in history.
Test
1.What is the most important reason that Sequoyah will be remembered?
a)California redwoods were named in his honour.
b)He was illiterate.
c)He created a unique alphabet.
d)He recovered from his madness and helped mankind.
2.How did Sequoyah’s family react to his idea of developing his own “talking leaf”?
a)They arranged for his hunting accident.
b)They thought he was crazy.
c)They decided to help him.
d)They asked him to teach them to read and write.
3.What prompted Sequoyah to develop his alphabet?
a)People were writing things about him that he couldn’t read.
b)He wanted to become famous.
c)After his hunting accident, he needed something to keep him busy.
d)He wanted the history of his people preserved for future generations.
4.The word ILLITERATE means most nearly
a)fierce, b) poor, c) abandoned, d) unable to read or write.
5.How would you describe Sequoyah?
a)determined, b) mad, c) backwards, d) meek.
6. Which of the following is NOT true?
a)Sequoyah developed a form of writing with the help of the
Cherokee tribe.
b)Sequoyah was a very observant young man.
c)Sequoyah spent twelve years developing his alphabet.
d)Sequoyah was honoured by having some trees named after him.
11 b) Read the text again and ask your classmates questions to cover the contents of the text.
11 c) Agree or disagree: It was due to the giant redwood trees that Sequoyah received his name.
Vocabulary Study
12. Write out all the words from the texts grouping them under the headings: 'Calendar', 'Library'.
Speech Practice
13.Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class:
•Roman republican calendar.
•The names of the months (their origin).
•The Inca calendar was “more sophisticated” than formally believed.
•The Julian calendar is named after Julius Caesar. Could you say a few words about the man? Do you happen to know the popular phrases: "The die is cast", "To cross the Rubicon", "Veni, vidi, vici"? On what occasions is Caesar said to have used them?
14.Have a round-table talk on the topics:
1.The alphabet suits the progress of mankind.
2.The inventors of the alphabetic system of writing.
3.Clay tablets are of exceptional importance a) to philologists and archaeologists; b)for studying the history of ancient civilisations.
Composition
15. Give a brief account of the origin and the story of the alphabet used by Russians and other peoples speaking Slavonic languages. Use the following words:
Cyril [‘siril]; Methodius [me’ di s]; the Cyrillic [si’rilik]; the Glagolitic [,gl gou’litik]; to go back to...; it was used by; it was connected with religious, political and cultural activity; to recieve a brilliant education; to master five languages;
to convert somebody to Christianity; to use the Greek alphabet; to be widely spread.
ROLEPLAY
You are a journalist. Your partner is a well-known historian of the Indies. Your task is to find out What Kind of Man Opened the Door to the New World. Use information from the article and your own imagination. The notes below will help you to prepare your interview.
When / Where born?
If there was any portrait of his?
What documents his life preserved in?
What his education was?
What his height was?
If he was of good stature?
What colour his hair was?
His preferences in eating, drinking, clothes.
His manner of speech.
His religious belief.
His revealing of anger.
COLUMBUS, THE MAN
Many of those who new Columbus took pains to study his character and appearance. In addition to Columbus’s own documentation, his life and work as written by some of his contemporaries have been preserved in letters, manuscripts, and books. No portrait or drawing of Columbus during his lifetime is known to exist.
Our knowledge of the early life of Columbus and his family has been pieced together by less than two dozen documents. He was born in 1451 in Genoa. By his own account he became a sailor at age 14. Although he left Genoa illiterate, he rapidly mastered Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin.
A description of Columbus’s personal appearance given by El Capitan Gonzalo y Valdes, says: “According to what I have learned, he was of good stature and appearance, of more than medium height, and with strong limbs, his eyes bright and his other features of good proportion: his hair very red and his face somewhat burned and freckled.”
Bartolome de Las Casa, the Historian of the Indies, who was as a youth knew Columbus after his return from the New World describes him as follows: “His form was tall, above the medium; his face long and his countenance imposing; his nose aquiline; his eyes clear blue; his complexion light, tending toward a decided red; his beard and hair were red when he was young, but very soon turned gray from his labors.”
Ferdinand Columbus, who spent all his time with his father between the ages of 12 and 18 describes him in his biography: “The Admiral was a well built man of more than medium stature, long visaged with cheeks somewhat high, but neither fat nor thin. His complexion was light, but kindling to vivid red. In youth his hair was blond, but when he came to his thirtieth year it all turned white. In eating and drinking and the adornment of his person he was always continent and modest. Among strangers his conversation was affable and with members of his household very pleasant, but with a modest and pleasant dignity. In matters of religion (as a devout Catholic) he was so strict that for fasting and saying all the canonical offices he might have been taken for a member of a religious order. And he was so great an enemy to cursing and swearing, that I swear I never heard him utter any other oath than ‘by San Fernando!’ and when he was most angry with anyone, his reprimand was to say,
‘May God take you' for doing or saying that. And when he had to write anything, he would not try the pen without first writing these words, Jesus cum Maria sit nobis in via, and in such fair letters that he might have gained his bread by them alone.”
He died on May 20, 1506, at the age of 55.
UNIT 6 |
MYTHS, LEGENDS, PRIMITIVE ART |
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Before you start: |
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Do you know: |
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a) any mythological character; |
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b)how myths originated; |
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c)in what forms these myths come to us. |
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1.Read and translate the text with the help of |
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a dictionary. Define the character |
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of the text (annotation, book review or |
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abstract of a book). |
All Thoughts of Centuries, All Dreams, All Worlds...
Russian Encyclopaedia Publishers has put out the first volume of a new two-volume encyclopaedia called "Myths of the Peoples of the World", containing materials on mythological characters and tales of all epochs, countries and peoples - from the indigenous tribes of Australia and South America to Buddhist, early Christian and Muslim mythology.
What we all have considered since childhood to represent mythology has been given prominence: antique myths, the mythological legacy of Greece and Rome which has contributed so much to subsequent culture. There are extremely interesting articles devoted to the Christian tradition and its Biblical roots. The ancient mythologies of Asia Minor, reflected in the earliest known manuscripts, are
described in detail.
In the article "Fine Arts and Mythology" the author traces the mythological roots of art, from the cave paintings to the Renaissance artists.
Myths are regarded not as a simple play of the imagination, but as the reflection of historical events (as transformed in people's minds) and, even more interesting, of our ancestors' ideas about the world around them and its structure. When the myth pertaining to the origin of man (see the article "Anthropogonic Myths") is based on the outward resemblance of man and the monkey, one can only admire the power of observation of the people who created the myth. The same is true of myths about the stars in the sky (the article "Astral
Myths"), reflecting ancient astronomical knowledge, whose high level has been confirmed by archaeology. One case is the earliest inhabitants of Europe who created primitive
observatories - stone structures like Stonehenge (Britain, second millennium B.C.)
The mythological characters and images incorporate the wisdom of the peoples of the world, their thoughts about their history and about the earliest and the most important cultural achievements, which in the myths are ascribed to "heroes", for example, the invention of fire - to Prometheus, in the Greek myth.
The authors and editors have produced not only a reference book, but an original piece of research which many enjoy reading. The encyclopaedia will undoubtedly attract those interested in philosophy as well as in culture and art.
Notes:
Encyclopaedia [en'saiklo(u)'pi:djə]
epoch ['i:pɔk] -эпоха
indigenous [in'diʤ inəs] - туземный, местный Buddhist ['budist]
Christian ['kristjən]
Muslim ['mʌslim]
mythology has been given prominence - мифологии отдавалось предпочтение
antique [жn'ti:k] - старинный, античный legacy ['legəsi] - наследие
subsequent ['sʌbsikwənt] - последующий Asia Minor ['eiʃə 'mainə] - Малая Азия Renaissance [rə'neisəns]
pertaining [pə: 'teinin] - относящийся Anthropogonic [жnиrə 'pɔgənik] - антропогенный Prometheus [prə 'mi:иju:s]
reference book ['refrəns buk] - справочник
2.By answering the following questions sum up the contents of the text:
1.Who can be interested in such an encyclopaedia?
2.Is it of any use for historians? Give your reasons.
3.When do people first collide [kɔ 'laid] (сталкиваются) with
mythological characters?
4.Why do different nations have the same myths?
5.Why do myths still exist in our epoch?
6.Can scientists refer to myths as the historical data?
3 a) Read the text, entitle it and be ready to speak on this topic.
In a very early period in the progress of man, and long before he was advanced enough to make use of letters, he felt the want of some resource to amuse his leisure in peacetime and to stimulate his courage in war. This need was supplied by epic songs, legends or ballads which, in one shape or another, are to be found among all the peoples in all parts of the world.
It is largely through these old tales that we know something of the people whose stories the minstrels or bards told. They were practically the first to provide for historical accounts.
Unconsciously they were handing down a historical record of their day, and, as archaeologists have found, the main outlines of these ancient stories are valid enough to be trusted and regarded as historically true.
One of the most ancient epics to be found in Europe is Kalevala, the Finnish saga. When minstrelsy had died out, it continued to live in the memories of Finnish peasants until in the 19th century it was put together, arranged and published by Scandinavian scholars.
Of Russian old epic songs the most celebrated is 'The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor' which treats of the defeat suffered by a Russian prince in his campaign against the enemies of Russia - the Polovtsy (Kipchak Turks).
Notes:
Kalevala [ka:li'va:la:]
Scandinavian [skжndi'neivjən]
3 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: "Certainly you are right" or "I'm afraid you are wrong ".
1.The main task of bards was to preserve the stock of traditions.
2.Archaeologists have found that the main outlines of the ancient stories are historically true.
3.Ancient myths and legends can only be found among few peoples.
4.Finnish ancient epics were published by Scandinavian scholars in the 16th century.
5.One of the most ancient epics of Europe, Kalevala, is practically the only collection of ancient tales that provides for historical accounts.
6.The profession of a bard was handed down from father to son through countless generations.
3 c) Match the words close in meaning:
1)advance, want, tale, bravery, to gather, to look upon (as), very old, famous, chief, bard;
2)to collect, ancient, celebrated, progress, main, minstrel, need, courage, to regard, story.
4.By answering the following questions speak on the glorious Russian epic 'The
Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor'. You may consult any reference literature. Work in pairs.
A. 1. The glorious ‘The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor’ is one of the most celebrated Russian epics. Will you classify it as an epic poem or a ballad? Give your reasons.
2.Was it handed down to us in oral tradition or in written form?
3.When was it produced (in the 10th century under Vladimir the Great or in the 12th century under Svjatoslav, prince of Kiev)?
4.Do you know the name of the poet who produced ‘The Lay’ or is it an
anonymous work?
5. What events does the poem deal with (a heroic deed, a military campaign, or a thrilling adventure)?
6.What evidence do we have to prove that the events described in ‘The Lay’ are historically true (archaeological finds, another version of the same tale, a historical record, or an account in a chronicle)?
7.Did Prince Igor march far into the steppe to meet the Polovtsy, or fight
them from the walls of his native town which they besieged?
8.Did he lead a large army, or a small armed force into the steppe?
9.Was the army of the Polovtsy larger or smaller than Igor's force?
10. Did Prince Igor suffer a defeat from the Polovtsy or win a victory over them?
11. Was Igor slain in battle, or wounded and taken prisoner?
12. Did all the other princes of the Russian lands express sorrow for Igor's failure, or did they delight in it?
13.The so-called Jaroslavna's lament (a passionate expression of great grief) is one of the most poetic parts of the poem and is regarded
as a masterpiece in world literature. Was Jaroslavna Igor's wife, sister, or mother?
14. Did Prince Igor stay as prisoner with the Polovtsy, or make his good escape?
B. 1. When and where was the manuscript of ‘The Lay’ found?
2.As you know, the manuscript of ‘The Lay’ perished in the Great
Moscow Fire of 1812. Had the text of ‘The Lay’ been published
before the Fire, or copied by hand, or photographed?
3.Where are the first printed copies of ‘The Lay’ preserved?
4.Who was the first to translate ‘The Lay’ into modern Russian?
5 a) Read the story, get ready to ask questions about the legend. Work in pairs.
The Legend of the Tower of Babel
You may have heard the story about the Tower of Babel. It is one of the myths people made up to say that having different languages keeps people apart, and that it is hard for people to become friends if they can't talk to each other.
The people of Babylonia were rich and powerful. They were also happy. They loved each other and they enjoyed working together. But one thing was lacking. Men had only the earth to enjoy. God had kept heaven for himself and his angels.
The King of Babylonia decided that his people should have Heaven as well as Earth. So he ordered them to build a great tall tower. Six hundred thousand men began making bricks and mixing mortar and piling up a building higher and higher. All day every day men carried bricks and mortar up a stairway on the east side of the Tower. Then they walked down another stairway on the west. This went on for forty-two years until the Tower was twenty-seven miles high. It was so high that it took a man a whole year to carry bricks from the ground to the top.
Now the Tower had risen nearly to Heaven and God saw that he would have to do something to keep the invaders out. Perhaps if he made it hard for people to co-operate, they would not be able to finish the Tower. To carry out his plan God sent seventy angels down to Earth. The angels had orders: first to take away the one language everybody understood, then to split the people up into groups, with each group speaking a new tongue of its own. In no time the men who made bricks couldn't talk to the men who carried them. And the men who carried bricks couldn't say an understandable word to the men who laid the bricks. Everything was a mess, and everybody blamed everybody else for not understanding. People no longer talked about the Tower of Heaven. Instead they talked about the Tower of Babel, which meant the Tower of Confusion. Work came to a dead stop. The builders went away carrying their new languages with them. That is how it happened that different tongues are spoken in different parts of the world.
Notes:
Babylonia [,bжbi'lounjə]
to lack [lжk] - испытывать недостаток, нуждаться heaven ['hevn] - небо, небеса
The king of Babylonia decided that his people should have - ... решил,
чтобы у его народа было
mortar ['mɔ:rtə] - известковый раствор; скреплять раствором
God saw that he would have to do something - Бог увидел, что ему придется что-то сделать, чтобы
...if he made it hard ... they would not be able... - если бы он сделал
трудным... они бы не смогли...
to split up - разделять, раскалывать
tongue ['tʌn] - язык
to blame ['bleim] - винить no longer - более не
the Confusion [kən'fju:ʒ(ə)n] - библ. смешение языков.
5 b) Finish this legend by translating the following:
Сначала была сказка о том, как бог накажет (would punish) вавилонян. А потом, когда прошли столетия и башня, которую пощадил (to spare) Кир, разрушил Ксеркс
(Xerxes ['zə:ksi:z]) и сравнял с землей (to churn to rubble) Александр, перестала существовать, миф о гибели Вавилонской башни вошел в библию (the Bible).
6 a) Translate in writing the following text.
Indian Rock Art: A National Treasure in Jeopardy [‘ʤepə di]
Like the monoliths of Easter Island and the prehistoric cave paintings of Altamira, North American Indian rock art is surrounded by an aura of mystery. Who were the long-ago artists? What do the carvings and paintings signify?
Although examples of rock art exist at some 15,000 sites - in canyons, deserts, caves - in at least 43 states, few Americans are aware of this immense legacy from the continent's past.
Dating back as far as 5000 years, rock art represents a unique history of aboriginal Americans. It is one of the Indians' richest archaeological remains and their most abundant artistic legacy. In most cases, the art is a visual expression of a prehistoric ideology depicting, often with striking artistic sensitivity, such ritual practices as hunting cults, fertility and religious rites.
Unfortunately, many of these ancient relics have been obliterated by the ravages of nature and man. Wind and water have eroded, and continue to wear away, unprotected sites. But the biggest threat is man. The construction of roads, homes and dams has destroyed thousands of rock carvings and paintings.
6 b) Prove that primitive arts represents a unique history of ancient people;
c)Speak on the fact that the paintings and carvings are increasingly falling victim to vandalism;
d)Are there any champions of art? Their goal is the protection and preservation of rock-art sites, isn't it?
7 a) Read and translate the text paying attention to the special structure of this text.
Burial Customs as an Archaeological Source
Archaeologists, however, are interested in many other things besides finds. Method of barrow construction, types of surface structures and details of the funerary ritual also throw light on the material and spiritual culture of ancient society.
Burial practices as an archaeological source contain a variety of information. Since they represent a stable system, the reconstruction of burial practices permits one to identify six informational units. The first unit reveals the ancients' ideas about the means of passage of the deceased to the other world and of life in the realm [ri:lm] of the dead. The second unit permits the reconstruction of the process of replacement of the archaeological culture by another. The third unit can be used to draw conclusions about the social positions of various sex-age groups in ancient societies. The fourth unit allows one to characterize the social differentiation of ancient societies, as many features of the burial rite are determined by the social rank of the deceased. The fifth unit provides information about the evolution of forms of the family in ancient societies and permits the identification of "outsiders" in the community to which the cemetery belongs; the presence of "outsiders" may be explained in terms of marriage contacts with neighboring communities. The sixth unit contains demographic factors such as life span, stature, decease, and trauma. Thus the burial rite is an indispensable source of religious, cultural, sociological, and demographic information on ancient societies.
7 b) Explain the character of this text and give your reasons.
8. Explain the main idea of the following text to a non-historian student.