Числова_английский

Происхождение народов, их расселение (distribution) и их родственные отношения, особенности окружения, общественного строя и культуры - все это и является предметом исследования этнографии (ethnography).

У истоков поведения человека (at the root of men's behavior) находятся идеи о мире и месте людей в нем; идеи о природе реального; и о том, что, в человеческом мире хорошего и, что плохого. Без понимания общественно эталонных значений (socially standardized meanings), которые лежат за поступками людей

(lie behind people's actions), многое из поведения других может показаться (may appear to be) иррациональным, если не совершенно бессмысленным (if not downright

nonsensical).

Но мы не можем классифицировать культуру людей как религиозную, магическую, научную. Любая культура содержит элементы всех трех. Для того чтобы существовать (In order to survive), культура должна быть основана на огромном

количестве эмпирических знаний (a great amount of empirical knowledge). Там, где люди не в состоянии предсказать (are unable to predict) или проконтролировать ход событий с определенной степенью достоверности (with some degree of satisfaction), они могут искать (may seek) другие источники объяснения - не эмпирические.

Антропологи (Anthropologists) классифицируют верования людей на те, которые связаны с естественным, эмпирически познаваемым (which are concerned with the natural, empirically knowable) миром, и те, которые связаны со сверхестественным (the supernatural). Внутри последней (Within the latter) категории имеет место еще одно подразделение (a second distinction), которое делит верования на магические и религиозные.

9 a) Test. Read the text (you are given 5 minutes). Be ready to fulfil the assignments.

The Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza [‘gizei], a monument of wisdom and prophecy, was built as a

tomb for Pharaoh Cheops [‘ki:ɔps] in 2720 B.C. Despite its antiquity, certain aspects of its construction make it one of the truly great wonders of the world. The four sides of the pyramid are aligned almost exactly on true north, south, east, and west - an incredible engineering feat. The ancient Egyptians were sun worshippers and great astronomers, so computations for the Great Pyramid were based on astronomical observations.

Explorations and detailed examinations of the base of the structure reveal many intersecting lines. Further scientific study indicates that these represent a type of time line of events - past, present, and the future. Many of the events have been interpreted and found to coincide with known facts of the past. Others are prophesied for future generations and are presently under investigation.

Was this superstructure made by ordinary beings, or one built by a race far superior to any known today?

Test

1. Approximately how long ago was the Great Pyramid constructed? a) 640 years, b) 2,720 years, c) 4,000, d) 4,700 years.

2.On what did ancient Egyptians base their calculations?

a)observation of the celestial bodies,

b)advanced technology,

c)advanced tools of measurement,

d)knowledge of the earth’s surface.

3.Why was the Great Pyramid constructed?

a)as a solar observatory,

b)as a religious temple,

c)as a tomb for the pharaoh,

d)as an engineering feat.

4.Why is the Great Pyramid of Giza considered one of the seven wonders of the world?

a)It is perfectly aligned with the four cardinal points of the

compass and contains many prophecies.

b)It was selected as the tomb of Pharaoh Cheops.

c)It was built by a super race.

d)It is very old.

9 b) Read the text for the second time and answer the following questions:

1.Where are the most ancient pyramids situated?

2.Why are the tombs of the ancient pharaohs listed among the most wonderful constructions of the ancient world?

3.What can be said about the ancient Egyptians?

4.Were calculations for the Great Pyramid based on advanced technology?

5.The Great Pyramid wasn't built by ordinary people, was it?

Vocabulary Study

10. Write out all the words from the texts which can help explain the meaning of the following notions: a myth, a legend, primitive art.

Speech Practice

11. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class:

•The origin of mythology.

•Unwritten literature is the historical evidence.

•The investigation of myths, legends, epics, ballads - is one of the main laws of preserving culture.

•The information we get through unwritten literature.

•The reasons of existence of myths in modern society of high technology and space flights.

12. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above.

Composition

13.Write in English the definition of a myth, a legend, an epic, a ballad.

14.The main outline of the ancient epic poem of Iliad, as archaeologists have found, can be regarded as historically true. Write briefly

a)what the poem of Iliad treats; b)what you know about the man who unearthed the ancient town of Troy.

ROLEPLAY

You are a teacher of literature at school. Your partner is a curious schoolboy of the 5th grade. Answer all his questions.

THE LAY OF THE WARFARE WAGED BY IGOR

The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor was written as long ago as in 1187, but time has not muted its patriotic appeal or dimmed its brilliant colours. Interest in The

Lay, far from slackening, is actually growing wider and deeper.

Why is this not very long epic poem enjoying such a long life? Why do the ideas it carries and the writing itself continue to move us till this day?

The Lay was first published in the autumn of 1800. Count Alexei MusinPushkin, a well-known collector and lover of Russian antiquities had acquired the manuscript a few years previously. True, it was not the original author’s text, but one of the copies made by a scribe in the 16th century and included in a collection of old Russian secular writing. And it was this collection that Musin-Pushkin bought among other manuscripts through a commission agent from Archimandrite Joel of the since closed down Spasso-Yaroslavsky Monastery.

The manuscript perished in the Moscow fire of 1812 together with the whole invaluable collection of Musin-Pushkin, which he kept in his house.

At the beginning of the 19th century, ancient Russia had been little studied as yet. People had only a very vague notion of ancient Russian literature and the literary language, of its wonderful architecture, painting and jeweler’s art. Therefore, it was not surprising that when The Lay was discovered the skeptics refused to believe that a marvelous work like that could have belonged to the 12th century. Their voices were all the louder because “scientific skepticism” in general was widespread at the beginning of the 19th century. In Russia, as in the West, there existed a whole trend in historical science, a “skeptical school” which subjected to doubt the authenticity of most ancient writings (Russian, Ancient Greek, and West European) among them, for instance, even Nestor’s Chronicle (The Tale of Bygone Years) although hundreds of 14th-16th century copies and numerous testimonials of its authenticity have been preserved.

The more The Lay was investigated, the clearer it became that it was genuine. At the end of the 18th century, ancient Russian was so little known that an imitation was hardly possible. In the course of research some passages in The Lay which first seemed obscure were clarified, as were also many references to actual historical events found in the poem.

The poem was written at a time when the feudal fractioning of Russia was at its height. The economical, political and cultural life of the princedoms was insulated within their local little worlds. A great number of the smaller princes fought with each other, contending for land, for seniority, and becoming involved in fratricidal wars for the sake of purely personal, local claims. And Kiev lost its significance as the centre of the Russian lands.

Just a cursory enumeration of 12th century cultural achievements is evidence enough that The Lay was not the time’s only work of art. It had its contemporaries in different spheres: in architecture, in painting, in applied arts.

Literature – oral or written – was really the pride of Russian 12th century culture. The little that has come down to us of the wealth that was destroyed in enemy raids, that perished in fires or was lost through negligence, proves not just the existence of good literary works but also the general development of literature at the time. There were several literary schools, numerous genres, a demand for literature and an ingrained habit of reading.

The diversity of schools, styles, traditions and genres in architecture, painting and literature, reflecting the fractionisation of the land into separate feudal princedoms,

must also be put down to another development, typical for the 12th century, that is, the intensified influence of the old local folk tradition exerted on the development of the

Russian national culture. This influence was at its strongest during the writing of The Lay, although it had begun long before, and the poem with its natural combination of folk tradition and elements of refined literature is indisputably typical for the 12th century.

The name of the author is unknown to us, and will hardly ever be known. So far, all the attempts to establish his identity have been based on the most fantastic assumptions.

Still, there are some things we can assume about the author, his views, and his social position. First of all, he was not a monk, he was most likely a soldier, seeing how familiar he is with military concepts. He was undoubtedly an educated man and did not belong to the toiling class. In his political views, however, he clearly gave his sympathies to the working population of Russia, and had none for the class interests of the feudal elite. That is why he uses elements of folk poetry so freely. He wrote The Lay soon after Igor’s campaign of 1185. It is not a historical tale about the remote past, it is a response to a recent happening, agrievous happening that still hurts. He speaks of things that are very well known to him. It is a fresh impression of something that his readers, his contemporaries, still vividly remember, and therefore the poem is full of hints, reminders, and muted indications. There is no doubt that in the 16th century The Lay was copied out in Pskov or else in Novgorod.

UNIT 7 FROM THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Before you start:

Do you know who was called scribes in Ancient Egypt?

What ancient methods of education do you know?

Which of them are preserved today?

1. Read and translate the text and explain the underlined grammar forms.

THE EGYPTIAN SCRIBES

In Ancient Egypt officials who could read and write were required for all posts in the highly centralized administration, and the first necessity of any man who wished to follow a professional career was that he should be properly educated in one of the schools attached to a palace or temple where books were copied and formal instruction given.

In the reign of Rameses II, instruction began at the age of four and was completed twelve years later. In learning the classical utterance of the Middle Kingdom, which was used for some monumental and literary purposes down to Graeco-Roman days, the pupil of a later day had to wrestle with a language which was already dead and which he understood very imperfectly, as his copies of the classics clearly reveal. It is often only in such garbled forms that Egyptian literature has come down to us.

The pupil began by learning by heart the different hieroglyphs and from that he progressed to words. From this stage he went on to copy extracts from the classics, sometimes translating them into his native language. Papyrus was too expensive for beginners to spoil and potsherds and flakes of limestone (ostraka) had to serve instead. The instruction in reading and writing comprised other subjects as well.

Learning without tears may have been the ideal in some respects, although the Egyptians also had a belief in the efficacy of corporal punishment. It is not surprising that under such treatment the schoolboy should have thought of running away to become a soldier or charioteer or farmer.

When the scribe had graduated from school he had his foot on the first rung of a career in the higher ranks of the army, the treasury, or the palace.

Notes: scribe -писец

to require [ri'kwaiə] - требовать

should be properly educated - зд. должен был получить достаточное образование

attached - зд. прикрепленный instruction - обучение

reign [rein] - царствование Rameses ['rж misi:z]

utterance ['ʌtərəns] - изречение to wrestle ['resl] = to struggle

to reveal [ri'vi:l] - обнаруживать

It is often only in such garbled forms that Egyptian literature has come down to us. - Часто египетская литература доходила до нас

именно в таких искаженных формах. hieroglyph ['haiərəglif]

papyrus [pə'paiərəs] to spoil - портить

potsherd ['pɔtʃə:d] - глиняный черепок flake [fleik] - зд. осколок (черепок) limestone - известняк

ostraka ['ɔstrəkə] pl. from ostrakon efficacy ['efikəsi] - действенность, сила corporal ['kɔprl] - телесный, физический

punishment ['pʌniʃmənt] - наказание

should have thought of - подумывал о том, чтобы charioteer ['ʧжriə'tiə] - уст. возница

rung [rʌn] - ступенька

the treasury ['treʒəri] - казначейство

2.Answer the questions.

1.What periods is the History of Ancient Egypt divided into?

2.Why was it important to be a scribe in Ancient Egypt?

3.What role did scribes play in the development of Egyptian culture?

4.Was it an easy matter for pupils to be instructed in Ancient Egypt?

5.When did Rameses II reign? What was he famous for?

6.Was Ancient Egypt a mighty state in Ancient East? Prove your answer.

3.Read the text, translate it and say what the main method of instruction was in

Ancient Greece.

Early Greek Education

The method of instruction that early men used was through imitation. Children began to imitate their elders first in play. In fact, children of all periods have done this. Toys and games were miniatures of adult activities. As children grew older, they imitated their elders more closely by participating directly in the hunt, in agriculture, in domestic duties and in religious ceremonies.

Even after the development of writing, the method of instruction continued to depend upon imitation and memorization.

The same method also pervaded early Greek education. During the Homeric age and for a long time afterward the youth were given noble examples of great men to imitate.

There was no separation between word and deed. The young were constantly under the supervision of their elders. And if they obeyed, well and good; if not, they were punished.

Notes:

miniature ['minjəʧə]

imitation and memorization - подражание и заучивание

the youth were set noble examples of great men to imitate -

юношам приводили примеры, достойные подражания

divorce [di'vɔ:s] of word and deed - расхождение между словом и делом

supervision [,sju:pə'viʒn] - зд. наблюдение, надзор

4. Read the dialogue, translate and entitle it. Be ready to reproduce it.

- Have you heard anything about Spartan education?

=Not much, though I know that it was a very severe upbringing.

- It was owing to Lycurgus, a legendary Spartan law-giver of the 9th century B.C. The laws settled by Lycurgus arranged the lives of Spartans from birth to death.

=Whom was a Spartan boy taken to on the day of his birth? And what for?

- He was taken to the elders for a careful examination. All deformed and weakly infants were considered useless to the state.

=What happened to them?

-They were taken to a near-by mountain top and left to die of cold and hunger.

=What were the further steps of upbringing?

- If boys were found physically fit, at the age of seven they were taken from their parents and placed at the public schools. They lived in barracks in the hardest and simplest way possible.

=What were the reasons of such upbringing?

-A Spartan boy was taught to become a strong and fearless soldier able to endure hardships and suffering.

=What does that mean?

-Even in winter he went barefoot and slept outdoors. His chief food was a very badtasting broth, but as part of his training he was taught to feed himself by stealing food from farms and gardens. If he was caught, he was whipped - not because he had stolen, but because he was found out.

=Did they go in for any kind of sports?

-No doubt. Their sports and exercises were regulated by the severest discipline, and made up of labour and fatigue.

=At what age did a Spartan boy become a soldier?

-At the age of 20 when he approached manhood and service in the army, he was beaten in public.

=Isn't it the so-called strange tradition?

- Yes, it is, but this taught him to endure pain in silence.

=What other rules were they guided by?

-Spartan youths were taught to be modest in manner and brief in speech. In fact they were known for their short speech which is now called laconic, after Laconia, the state ruled by Sparta.

=Is the popular phrase "With the shield or on it" somehow connected with

the Spartans?

-You are quite right. When a soldier was leaving for the battle his mother handed him his shield and usually warned: "Come back with your shield

or on your shield."

=Thank you very much. It was interesting to know about Spartan education in detail.

Notes:

severe upbringing [si'viə 'ʌpbrinin] -суровое испытание

Lycurgus [lai'kə:gəs] - Ликург

for a careful examination - для тщательного осмотра

were found physically fit - с нормальным физическим развитием fear [fiə] - страх

fearless ['fiələs] - бесстрашный

to endure hardships [in'djuə 'ha:dʃips] (suffering, pain, difficulties) -

переносить лишения (страдания, боль, трудности) to feed himself by stealing food from - добывать себе продукты

питания воруя ...

whip [wip] - кнут; стегать кнутом was found out - был обнаружен

fatigue [fə'ti:g] - усталость

approached manhood [ə 'prouʧt 'mжnhud] - достигал совершенно-

летия

to be modest in manner and brief in speech - быть скромным и немногословным

to warn [wɔ:n] - предупреждать

5.Complete the dialogue by translating the following:

- А что стало с самим Ликургом?

=Легенда рассказывает, что, составив свод законов, Ликург покинул Спарту, взяв с жителей города торжественную клятву (binding the Spartans by a solemn oath) соблюдать (to obey) законы до его возвращения.

- И как скоро он вернулся?

=Для того, чтобы заставить спартанцев вечно повиноваться этим законам, Ликург так и не вернулся в Спарту.

- Известно ли что-нибудь о нем?

=Легенда утверждает, что он добровольно отказался от пищи и умер голодной смертью (he voluntarily starved himself to death).

6.Read the text, translate it. Be ready to compare systems of education in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Do it in pairs.

Education of Roman Youth

The Romans were no innovators in educational methods. They copied their educational method from the Greek. Roman boys were given noble examples of manhood to imitate.

But unlike the Greeks, they were under the supervision not of a pedagogue ( as he often was a slave), but of their fathers. Thus a Roman youth was his father's frequent companion in forum, camp, and field. He learned the Roman virtues of fortitude, honesty and pity not only by imitating the heroes of legend and history but also by observing these virtues in his father and his father's companions. Rome's great schoolmaster Quintilian (42-118) mentioned that the way of learning by precept was long and difficult but by example short and easy.

Later the education of Roman youth became more literary in character. More time was spent on grammar and effective speech.

By the time the Greek or Roman youth had learned enough to begin the reading of some authors, another method of instruction was employed. First, selected passages were analyzed and discussed, then a literary critique of the passage as a whole was given. The selected passages were given for an exact reading with particular regard to pronunciation, punctuation, and rhetorical expression. Thus the youth were taught to express themselves artistically.

Notes:

innovator [,inouveitə] - новатор

Roman boys were expected to memorize - Полагали, что мальчики-

римляне должны заучивать

slave [sleiv] - раб

frequent ['fri:kwənt] - постоянный, частый virtue ['və:tju:] - достоинство, качество fortitude ['fɔ:titju:d] - стойкость

honesty ['ɔnisti] - честность pity ['piti] - зд. сострадание

to observe [ɔb'zə:v] - наблюдать

Quintilian [kwin'tiljən] - Квинтилиан, крупнейший представитель педагогической мысли др. Рима

to mention ['menʃn] - упоминать

by precept ['pri:sept] - путем наставлений

to employ [im'plɔi] - зд. применять, использовать

7. Read the text, translate it and say whether you can explain the great influence of Greek literature on the world culture.

The Heritage of Greek Literature

Only a small fraction of what ancient Greeks composed has come down to modern times. The greater part of their literature is irretrievably lost. So it is surprising that Greek literature has exercised such an unparalleled influence. The very words for different dramatic and poetic forms - 'tragedy', 'comedy', 'lyric', 'epic' - or for the different verse metre - 'jamb', 'dactyl', 'hexameter' - bear witness to its importance. What schoolchild or student of modern times has not heard of Homer, has not dreamed of the mighty deeds of his heroes? What modern reader would not be awed by the breadth of Homer's vision of the human race, his insight into human emotions, the charm and meaningfulness of his parables? What poet or lover of poetry would not be captured by the infinite warmth and tenderness of the lyrics of Sappho, Pindar, or Anacreon? Their names may be less familiar than Homer's, but their influence has been felt, consciously and unconsciously; and their poetry has given direction to the form and content of songs and poems in all subsequent ages. Equally potent has been the influence of the Greek dramatists, of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Aristophanes. Their individual topics, whether mythological or political, have lost much pertinence, but their general significance has remained undiminished.

Notes:

iamb ['aiжmb] - ямб dactyl ['dжktil] - дактиль

hexameter [hek'sжmitə] - гекзаметр

bear witness to its importance - свидетельствует о ее значимости would not be captured - не увлекался бы

Sappho ['sжfou] - Сапфо (или Сафо), древнегреческая лирическая поэтесса (7-6 вв. до н.э.)

Pindar ['pində] - Пиндар (522 или 518 - ок. 442 до н.э.), древнегре-

ческий поэт, видный представитель торжественной хоровой лирики

Anacreon [ə'nжkriən] - Анакрион (ок. 570 -478 до н.э.), древнегре-

ческий поэт лирик

Sophocles ['sɔfəkli:z] - Софокл (ок. 497406 до н.э.), великий драма-

тург Древней Греции

Aeschylus ['i:skiləs] - Эсхил (525 - 456 до н.э.), великий

древнегреческий поэт-трагик

Aristophanes [,жris'tɔfəni:z] - Аристофан (ок. 446 -383 до н.э.),

выдающийся представитель древнегреческой комедии