II. International Words.

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of com¬munication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin.

Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy, Mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.

There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.

It is quite natural that political terms frequently oc¬cur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is a Russian borrowing, and it became an international word (meaning a man-made satellite) in 1961, immedi¬ately after the first space flight by Yury Gagarin.

The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis.

Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic coun¬tries often transport their names too and, being simul-taneously imported to many countries, become inter¬national: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.

It is important to note that international words are mainly borrowings. The outward similarity of such words as the E. son, the Germ. Sohn and the R. СЫН should not lead one to the quite false conclusion that they are international words. They represent the Indo-European group of the native element in each respec¬tive language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same etymological root, and not borrowings.

III. Pseudointernational words (ложные друзья переводчика).

As a matter of fact, very few international words have the same meanings in different languages. In respect to English and Russian we can cite the words like the English "parliament, theorem, diameter" and their Russian counterparts «парламент, теорема, диаметр». In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Russian do not coincide and they should rather be named "pseudointernational". Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors. For that reason they are often referred to as the translator's false friends.

The pseudointernational words can be classified in two main groups:

1) which are similar in form but completely different in meaning (lunatic = сумасшедший, а не лунатик)

2) words which are not fully interchangeable though there are some common elements in their semantics (Shakespeare's idiom = стиль, а не идиом)

More examples:

• activities - деятельность

• advocate - сторонник, защитник

• actual - фактический

• accurate - точный, меткий

• artist – художник

2. Типы словосочетаний в языке. Фразеологические единицы.

I. Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks functioning as whole. In any language there are certain restrictions imposed upon co-occurrence of words. They can be connected with linguistic factors or the ties in the extra-linguistic reality.

3 types of lexical combinability of words:

1) Free combinations – grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability. FC permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.

Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.

2) Collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Ex.: to commit a murder , Bread & butter, Blue sky

3) Idioms – also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly.

II. Phraseological unit / set expression / idiom – a complex word-equivalent in which the globality of nomination reigns supreme over the formal separability of elements. It is reproduced in speech. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units.

- collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words (bed and board)

- unities – one component preserves its direct meaning (to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность)

- fusions – degree of semantic isolation is the highest (to kick the bucket = to die)

№20

1. Морфемная структура слова, понятие морфемы. Типы морфем.

Mopheme – a two-facet unit (spelling & meaning). M. can’t be used separately and can’t be segmented without losing its meaning.

Segmentable words:

1) complete segmentability – exist in words where one can identify parts (child|hood, driv|er)

2) conditional s. – receive-conceive-deceive

3) defective s. – ringlet, hamlet

Types of morphemes:

1. Semantically:

• root-morphemes (making up a word-cluster): teach, teacher, teaching.

• affixational morphemes (prefixes and affixes).

2. Structurally:

• free m. – coincides with the stem 2 or a word-form (friend-)

• bound m. – constituent part of a word (e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ship, -ize, etc., the prefixes un-, dis-, de-, etc. (e.g. readiness, comradeship, to activize; unnatural, to displease, to decipher))

• semi-bound m. – can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme (‘well’ and ‘half’ - sleep well, well-known; half an hour, half-done)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Особенности значения фразеологических

Phraseological units – word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Can be:

• collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words (bed and board)

• unities – one component preserves its direct meaning (to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность)

• fusions – the degree of semantic isolation is the highest. It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression (to kick the bucket = to die)

Also:

• combinations – both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense (to see the light = to understand)

• proverbs/sayings (Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back)

• formulas of politeness (How do you do? Good-bye. How about a drink?)

• clichés – expressions are store in our mind, ready-made (it is high time to…)

• quotations–to support our arguments, to add some prominence (to be or not to be)

№21

1. Способы образования новых слов в английском языке. Конверсия.

Word-building

• Process of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

• Provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Conversion consists of making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech (a look – to look)

The meaning of a new word

• Differs from that of the original one;

• Can be associated with it.

Conversion:

1) The semantic change that regularly accompanies each instance of conversion

Yellow leaves (adjective denotes colour)

The leaves were turning yellow (adjective denotes the process of changing colour)

2) The regularity and completeness with which converted units develop a paradigm of their new category of part of speech

Regularities in meanings of converted words

• The name of a tool or implement - an action performed by the tool (to pencil)

• The name of an animal - an action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of this animal (to ape)

• The name of a part of the human body — an action performed by it (to hand)

• The name of a profession or occupation — an activity typical of it (to cook)

• The name of a place — the process of occupying the place or of putting smth/smb in it (to room)

• The name of a container — the act of putting smth within the container (to pocket)

• The name of a meal — the process of taking it (to lunch)

Types:

1. verbalization (formation of verbs) to ape from ape

2. substantivation (formation of nouns) a private from private

3. adjectivation (formation of adj.) down - adj from adv.

4. adverbalization (formation of adverbs) home - adv from a noun.

Verbs converted from nouns are called denominal verbs. If the noun refers to some object of reality the converted verb may denote:

1. action characteristic of the object (to ape – imitate in a foolish way)

2. instrumental use of the object (whip - strike with a whip)

3. acquisition or addition to the object (fish - to catch a fish)

4. deprivation of an object (dust - remove dust from smth)

5. location (pocket-put into a pocket)

Nouns converted from verbs are called deverbal substantives. If the verb refers to an action, converted noun can denote:

1. instance of the action (jump - sudden spring from the ground)

2. agent of the action (help - a person who helps)

3. place of the action (drive - a road )

4. result of the action (peel – the outer skin of a fruit)

5. object of the action (let – a property available to rent)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Полисемия и омонимия фразеологических

Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units

• Always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations

• Grammatical structure is stable

3 types (by Vinogradov)

1. Phraseological collocations: motivated; have a certain degree of stability; variability of member-words is strictly limited (heavy rain)

2. Phraseological unities: partially non-motivated; their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning; have comparatively high degree of stability (rain or shine)

3. Phraseological fusions: non-motivated; the meaning of the components has no connections with the meaning of the whole group; have complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion (Kilkenny cats)

Polysemy means the ability of words to have more than one meaning. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. There are 2 processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and catenation.

• Radiation: the process when a word acquires a wider range of meanings. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning.

Face - the front part of the human head (the main meaning)

Face - the front part of the building (secondary meaning)

• Catenation: secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. It is difficult to trace some meanings to the main one.

Crust -> hard outer part of bread -> hard part of anything -> harder layer over soft snow -> a sullen gloomy person

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound of spelling or both in sound and spelling. Homonyms can appear in the language as a result of the split of polysemy and also as a result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical.

Homonyms appear as a result of:

1.  The phonetic convergence of 2 words of different pronunciation & meaning

Race → a) people derives from Old Norwegian “ras”               b) running, from French “race”

2.   The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words polysemantically related before

Pupil → a) scholar               b) apple of an eye (зрачок)

Types:

• Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning

tear n [tɪə] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the eye’

tear v [tɛə] — ‘to pull apart by force’

• Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning

Sea – see

Son – sun

• Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning

Case n — ’something that has happened’

Case n — ‘a box, a container’

Full homonyms represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm: match, n – матч, match, n – спичка

Partial homonyms:

1. simple lexico-grammatical belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.) - lay, v (to lie))

2. complex lexico-grammatical different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n- rose, v (to rise))

3. lexical the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v - can, v (modal))

№22

1. Способы образования новых слов. Аффиксация. Типы аффиксов.

Word-formation – the process of forming words by combining root and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language (affixation, composition), or without any outward means of word formation (conversion, semantic derivation). Affixation – word-forming suffixes: I. Native: • noun-forming suffixes: -er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -hood, -ship, -th • adjective-forming suffixes: -ful, -y, -ly, -some, -less, -ish, -en • verb-forming suffixes: -en • adverb-forming suffixes: -ly II. Borrowed: 1. Latin: • noun-forming suffixes: -ion, -tion • adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -ate, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar • verb-forming suffixes: -ate, -ute, -ct, -de, dis- 2. French: • noun-forming suffixes: -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess • adjective-forming suffixes: -ous • verb-forming suffixes: -en- (enable) Affixes can be: • Productive (-ism) • Non-productive (-hood)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Различные типы классификаций.

Phraseological units – word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Can be: I. Types lexical combinability of words: 1) Free combinations – grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability. FC permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element. Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing. 2) Collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations. Ex.: to commit a murder , Bread & butter, Blue sky 3) Idioms – also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts. Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly. II. This classification of idioms according to their structure: 1. Fixed idioms a) fixed regular idioms • It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level) • to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level) Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame • to mind one’s own business /to mind one business • to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть) • dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard • AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet III. Semantic classification: 1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания) the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole. Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression The degree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions 2. Semi-opaque one component preserves its direct meaning Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность => phraseological unities 3. Transparent both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense Ex.: to see the light = to understand => phraseological combinations IV. Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”. 1. Nominative • A hard nut to crack 2. Nominative–communicative • The ice is broken 3. Interjectional & modal • Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!) • As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2) 4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings) • There is no smoke without fire. 5. Nominative: • Substantive: crocodile tears • Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber • Adverbial: by & by, to & fro • Verbal: to live like a lord

№23

1. Аффиксация. Этимологическая классификация. Продуктивность и частотность. Значение. Полуаффиксы.

Affixation – the process of adding 1 or more affixes to some root morpheme.

Аffixes:

• Nаtive

• Borrowed

Nаtive

Noun-forming

-er: worker

-ness: loneliness

-ing: feeling

-dom: freedom

-hood: childhood

-ship: friendship

-th: length

Adjective-forming

• ful: careful

• less: careless

• y: cozy

• ish: English

• ly: lonely

• en: wooden

• some: handsome