From ohtere’s account of his first vouage

Ōhthere sxde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninZe, þxt hē ealra Norþmonna norþmest būde. Hē cwxþ þxt hē būde on þxm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsx. Hē sxde þēah þxt land sīe swīþe lanZ norþ þonan; so hit is eal weste, būton on fēawum stōwum stycce-mxlum wīciaþ Finnas, on huntoþe on wintra and on sumera on fiscaþe be þxre sx.

Hē sxde þxt hē xt sumum cirre wolde fandian hū lonZe þxt land norþryhte lxZe oþþe hwxþer xniZ mon benorþan þxm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þxm lande; lēt him ealne weZ þxt wēste land on þxt stēor-bord, and þā wid-sx on þxt bxc-bord, þrīe daZas. Þā wxs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwxlhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā Zīet norþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þxm ōþrum þrīm daZum ZesiZlan. Þā beaZ þxt land þxr ēastruhte oþþe sēo sx in on þxt lond, hē nysse hwxþer, būton hē wisse þxt hē þxr bād westan windes and hwōn norþan, and siZlde þā ēast be lande, swā-swā hē meahte on fēower daZum ZesiZlan. Þā sceolde hē þxr bīdan ryht-norþanwindes; for-þxm þxt land bēaZ þxr sūþryhte oþþe sēo sx in on þxt land hē nysse hwxþer. Þā siZlde hē þonan sūþryhte be lande, swā-swā hē mehte on fīf daZum ZesiZlan. Þā lxZ þxr ān micel ēa up-in on þxt land. Þā cirdon hīe up-in on þā ēa, forþxm hīe ne dorston forþ bi þxre ēa siZlan for unfriþe; for-þxm þxt land wxs eall Zebūn on ōþre healfe þxre ēas. Ne mētte hē xr nān Zebūn land, siþþan hē from his āZnum hām fōr.



The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."

In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contré ben many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, Zif he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.

The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character Z, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.

In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem.

All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English. (Merriam-Webster Online)

THE ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE ab.1154

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle belongs for the most part to the history of English literature before the Norman conquest; but the later records, especially those of the Peterborough version, are of great importance for the study of modern English prose. The Chronicle seems to have been begun in the reign of Alfred the Great, perhaps in consequence of his efforts for the education of his people. It exists in six versions, differing more or less from one another, both as to the events recorded and the period of time covered, but together forming, in a manner, a single world.

The following excerpt deals with the misfortunes of the people during the interregnum of (1135-1154), when Stephen de Blois, the nephew of King Henry I (1100-1135), brought the administration of the country into a distressful state.

1. Þis gxre for þe k.(ing) Staph.(ne) ofer sx to Normandi and ther wes unter-fangen, for-þi þxt hi uuenden þxt he sculde ben alsuic alse þe eom wes, and for he hadde get his tresor, ac he to-deld it and scatered sotlice.	1. This year went King Stephen over the sea to Normandy and was received there, because they thought that he was going to be just such as his uncle was, and because he still has his uncle’s treasure; but he dispersed it and scattered it foolishly.
2. Micel hadde Henri k.(ing) gadered gold and sylver, and na god ne dide me for his saule thar-of.	2. Much had Henry the king gathered of gold and silver, and no good did anyone for his soul by means of it.
3. Þa þe king S.(tephne) to Engeland com, þa macod he his gadering xt Oxeneford and þar he nam þe b.(iscop) Roger of Sereberi, and Alex. b.(iscop) of Lincol, and þe canceler Roger, hise neves, and dide selle in prisun, til hi iafen up here castles.	3. When king Stephen came to England, than he made his assembly at Oxford; and there he seized the bishop Roger of Salisbury and Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, and the Chancellor, his nephews, and put them all in prison till they gave up their castles.
4. Þa the suikes under-gxton þxt he milde man was, and softe, and god, and na justise ne dide, þa dide(n) hi alle wunder.	4. When the traitors percieved that he was a mild man and soft and good, and enforced no justice, then did they all wonders.
5. Hi hadden him manred maked and othes suoren, as hi nan treuthe ne heolden alle he wxron for-sworen and here treothes for-loren for xvrice rice man his castles makede and agxnes him heolden, and fylden þe land ful of castles.	5. They had done homage to him and sworn oaths, but they kept no troth. But they were all forsworn and their troths were entirely abandoned; for every powerful man built his castles and held against him, and they filled the land full of castles.
6. Hi suencten suyþe þe uurecce men of þe land mid castelweorces.	6. They opressed grievously the wretched men of the land with castle-building.
7. Þa þe castles uuaren maked, þa fylden hi mid deovles and yvele men.	7. When the castles were built, then they filled them with devils and evil men.
8. Þa namen hi þa men þe hi wenden þxt ani god hefden, bothe be nihtes and be dxies, carl-men and wimmen, and diden heom in prisun efter gold and sylver, and pined heom untellendlice pining; for ne uuxren nxvre nan martyrs swa pined, alse hi wxron.	8. Then they seized the men who they thought had any property, both by night and by day, men and women also, and thrust them in prison for gold and silver, and tortured them with unspeakable tortures, for never were any martyrs so tortured as they were.
9. Me henged bi þe fet and smoked heom mid ful smoke, me henged bi þe þumbes, oþer bi þe hefed, and hengen briniges on (her) fet.	9. They were hanged up by the feet and smoked with foul smoke. They were hanged by the thumbs, or by the head, and coats of mail were hung on their feet.

Note and translation from English Prose and Poetry, selected and annotated by John Matthews Manly, New York 1926.

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