STRESS

1. A stressed syllable is one that carries a rhythmic beat. It is marked by greater loudness than unstressed syllables, and often by pitch prominence, or greater duration, or more clearly vowel qualities.

2. An accent is the placement of intonational pitch-prominence (= higher or lower pitch than the surroundings) on a word. Speakers choose to accent certain word (or to de-accent others) because of the particular meaning they wish to convey in a particular situation. Accents can be located only on stressed syllables.

3. The stresses marked in LPD are lexical (= potential) stresses. Whether they are realized as accents depends on intonation.

4. LPD recognizes two levels of stress:

Primary stress (') When a word is said in isolation, this is where the nuclear

tone (= sentence accent) goes. A word or phrase has only

primary stress.

secondary stress (ˌ) In a word or phrase that potentially has more than one

stress, this symbol marks the place of a stress other than

the primary one. If this syllable is before the primary

stress, it may also bear an accent. See STRESS SHIFT.

5. In the first edition of LPD, a distraction was made between secondary (ˈ) and tertiary (.) stress. In this second edition the distinction has been abandoned. We continue to regard as unstressed the STRONG-vowelled syllables at the end of words such as hesitate

6. If the primary stress is located on the third or later syllable of a word, then there must also be a secondary stress on one or other of the first two syllables.

Syllables

1. In phonetics, a syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Every English word consists of one or more complete syllables.

glad consists of one syllable:

coming consists of two syllables:

So does valley:

tobacco consists of three syllables:

Each syllable contains exactly one vowel. This vowel may be preceded or followed by one or more consonants. The vowel itself may be a short vowel, a long vowel, or a diphthong; if it is the weak vowel ә, it may be combined with a nasal or liquid to give a SYLLABIC CONSONANT.

2. Phonetic (spoken) syllables must not be confused with orthographic (written)

syllables. An orthographic syllable is a group of letters in spelling. When a word is split across two lines of writing, it should be broken at an orthographic syllable boundary. (Word processors do this automatically with a hyphenation program.) In some cases an orthographic boundary may not correspond exactly to a phonetic syllable boundary. For example, in the word happen the spelling includes two ps, and the orthographic syllabification is hap.pen.

3. LPD shows the phonetic syllabification of words by putting spaces between successive syllables.

Syllabic consonants

1. Most syllables contain an obvious vowel sound. Sometimes, thought, a syllable

consists phonetically only of a consonant or consonants. If so, this consonant

(or one of them) is nasal (usually n) or liquid (l or especially in AmE, r). For

example, in the usual pronunciation of suddenly , the second syllable consists

of n alone. Such a consonant is a syllabic consonant.

2. Instead of a syllabic consonant it is always possible to pronounce a vowel ә plus an ordinary (non-syllabic) consonant.

3. Likely syllable consonants are shown in LPD with the symbol ә, thus suddenly LPD’s regular principle is that a raised symbol indicates a sound whose inclusion LPD does not recommend. Nence this notation implies that LPD prefers bare n in the second syllable. Since there is then no proper vowel in this syllable, the n must be syllabic.

4. Similarly, in middle LPD recommends a pronunciation with syllabic l. In father LPD recommends for AmE a pronunciation with syllabic r.

5. The IPA provides a special diacritic [ˌ] to show syllabicity. If syllabification is not shown in a transcription, then syllabic consonants need to be shown explicitly, thus n. For the syllabic r of AmE, the special symbol ә is sometimes used. Because LPD uses spaces to show syllabification, it does not need these conventions. Any nasal or liquid in which there is no other vowel must automatically be syllabic.

6. Syllabic consonants are also sometimes used where LPD shows italic ә plus a nasal or liquid, thus distant . (In some varieties of English or styles of speech, a syllabic consonant may in fact arise from almost any sequence of ә and a nasal or liquid.)

7. When followed by a weak vowel, a syllabic consonant may lose its syllabic quality, becoming a plain non-syllabic consonant: see COMPRESSION. For example, threatening may be pronounced with three syllables, including syllabic n; or compressed into two syllables, with plain n .

T-VOICING

1. For most Americans and Canadians the phoneme t sometimes pronounced as a voiced sound. Where this is the usual AmE pronunciation it is shown in LPD by symbol t̬ .

2. Phonetically, t̬ is voiced alveolar tap (flap). It sounds like a quick English d, and also like the r of some languages. For many Americans, it is actually identical with their d in the same environment, so that AmE shutter may sound just the same as shudder .

3. Learners of English as foreign language who take AmE as their model are encouraged to use t̬ where appropriate.

4. After n, AmE t̬ can optionally be ELIDED. Accordingly, it is shown in LPD in italics, as t̬ . Thus AmE winter can sound exactly the same as winner . Some Americans, thought, consider this pronunciation incorrect.

5. In connected speech, t at the end of a word may change to t̬ if both the following conditions apply:

• the sound before the t is a vowel sound or r

• the next word begins with a vowel sound and follows without a pause.

Thus in AmE right may be pronounced in the phrases right away , right out

But in right now no is possible; nor in left over .

6. Under the same conditions, if the sound before a t at the end of a word is n, the t may change to t̬ (and therefore possibly disappear): paint , but paint it . Again, some people consider this incorrect.

T Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is t, the pronunciation is regularly t, as tent .

Less frequently, it is regularly

ʧ, as in nature ˈneɪtʃә

ʃ, as in nation

t may also be part of the diagraph th

2. In AmE, t has the variant t̬ in certain position. This is shown explicitly in the LPD transcriptions, for example atom.

3. Where the spelling is double tt, the pronunciation is again t, as in button, better.

4. The pronunciation is ʧ in most words ending –ture, for example departure , picture . Historically, this pronunciation came about through yod coalescence. More generally, the pronunciation is usually ʧ wherever the spelling is t followed by weak u, as actual, situated. In some words of this type, however, there is an older or more careful pronunciation with t j, and this is regularly the case where the u is strong, as in attitude . In this latter type, AmE prefers plain t. In much BrE, the pronunciation is also ʧ wherever conservative RP would

have t j, as in Tuesday, tune.

5. Where t at the end of a stressed syllable is followed by i plus a vowel within a word, the pronunciation is regularly ʃ, as in partial, action, superstitious. When the following vowel is weak, as in the examples, the i is silent; but when it is strong, the pronunciation is i, as in initate. Sometimes there is an alternative possibility with s, particularly if the word already contains a ʃ, as in negotiation.

6. t is usually silent in two groups of words:

   • in –sten, -stle, as listen, thistle; also in Christmas, soften, often.

   • at the end of words recently borrowed from French, as chalet.

The sound t is often elided, giving further silent ts in words such as postman.

Th Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is the digraph th, the pronunciation is regularly

θ, as in thick,

ð, as in mother

Exceptionally, it is also

t, as in Thomas

2. At the beginning of a word, the pronunciation is θ or ð depending on the grammatical class to which the word belongs. In the definite article and other determiners, and in pronouns, conjunctions and pronominal adverbs, it is ð, as in this, they, though, thus. Otherwise it is θ, as in three, thing, threat.

3. In the middle of a word (provided that th is not at the end of a stem), the

pronunciation is generally

θ in words of Greek or Latin origin, as method, author, either;

ð in words of Germanic origin, as father, together, heaten.

4. At the end of a word or stem, the pronunciation is usually

θ, as in breath, truth, but

ð in smooth and one or two other words.

In with, RP prefers ð, GenAm θ.

Before silent e, and in inflected forms of the stems concerned, the

Pronunciation is regularly ð, as in breathe, soothing.

5. Several stems switch from θ to ð on adding the plural ending (mouth, mouths), on adding –ern or –erly (northern, southerly), or on converting from noun to verb (to mouth).

6. The pronunciation is t in thyme and certain proper names, including Chatham, Streatham, Thames, Thomas. In some cases, however, t has been or is being displaced by θ because of the influence of the spelling.

7. th is sometimes silent in asthma, clothes, isthmus. It is not a digraph in hothouse, apartheid.

U Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is u, the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is short or long, followed or not by r, and strong or weak.

2. The “strong” pronunciation is regularly

ʌ, as in cup (short U), or

juː, as in music (long U).

3. Less frequently, it is ʊ, as in push (especially before sh, l)

4. In the case of expected juː, jʊә, jʊ, the j drops out as follows:

   • after the consonant sounds ʧ, ʤ, ʃ, r, j, as in jury, rude;

   • sometimes in BrE, and always in AmE, after l, θ, s, z, as in assume;

   • usually in AmE, but not in BrE, after t, d, n, as in tune.

5. Note the exceptional words buzy, business, bury.

6. The weak pronunciation is:

jʊ ( jә) as in stimulus;

ә, as in album, Arthur;

jә, as in failure.

In the ending –ure the vowel is usually weak. Note also minute (noun), where

the BrE vowel sound is ɪ rather than ә.

7. u also forms part of the digraphs au, eu, ou, ue, ui, uy.

ue Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ue, the pronunciation is regularly

juː, as in cue

uː, as in blue.

2. ue is not a digraph in duet, cruel, pursuer.

ui Spelling-to-round

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ui, the pronunciation is regularly

juː, as in nuisance

uː, as in fruit.

2. Less frequently, the pronunciation is

ɪ, as in build, biscuit

aɪ, as in guide

3. Note the exceptional case suite swiːt

4. ui is not a digraph in fluid, tuition, nor in quick, quite.

uy Spelling-to-sound

In the rare cases where the spelling is the digraph uy, the pronunciation is regularly aɪ, as in buy.

V Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is v, pronunciation is regularly v, as in very.

2. v is also occasionally written vv, as in skivvy, ph, as in Stephen, and f in the single word of.

Voiced and voiceless

1. Voiced sounds are produced with the vocal folds vibration – opening abd closing rapidly, producing voice. Voiceless sounds are made with the vocal folds apart, allowing the air to pass freely between them.

2. The sounds p, t, k, ʧ, f, s, h, θ, ʃ are normally voiceless, while the remaining English sounds are classified as voiced.

3. There is a difficulty with this classification, since it refers to phonemes – yet in reality a given English phoneme may have both voiced and voiceless allophones. For example, in AmE the voiceless phoneme “t” includes the voiced allophone t̬, which is so noticeable that LPD gives it a separate symbol

4. Another difficulty arises with b, d, g, v, z, ʤ, ð, ʒ. It is only when they are between other voiced sounds that these consonants are reliably voiced. In other position there is often little or no actual vibration of the vocal folds during their production. Hence they are sometimes classified as lenis rather than as voiced. The corresponding term for p, t, k, ʧ, f, s, h, θ, ʃ is fortis, rather than voiceless.

5. A devoiced lenis does not sound quite like a fortis. Quite apart from differences such as those described in the notes at aspiration and clipping, b, d, g, etc. have less articulatory force than p, t, k. This may be due to the vocal folds, which in the case of a devoiced lenis sound probably remain in the narrowed “whisper” configuration, distinct from their wide open configuration for a true voiceless sound.

W Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is w,

   • either the pronunciation is w, as in swim, away

   • the w forms part of one of the digraphs aw, ew, ow, as in few.

2. w is always silent in wr at the beginning of a word or stem, as in wreck, rewrite; also in the exceptionally spelled words two, answer.

3. w is also regularly written u, as in persuade, and as part of the digraph qu, as in quite.

Wh Spelling-to-round

1. Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases may be either w or hw, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors. In RP and other accents of England, and in Australian English, it is usually w, as in white; but in GenAm usually, and in Scottish and Irish English almost always, it is hw, as in white. Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w if they are following the RP model, hw if they are following the GenAm model.

2. Occasionally, the pronunciation is h, as in whole, who.

Weak forms

1. Many English function words (= articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries, modals) have more than one pronunciation. In particular, they have a strong form, containing a strong vowel, and a weak form, containing a weak vowel. An example is at.

2. The weak form is generally used if the word is unstressed. The strong form is used only when the word is stressed, usually because it is accented.

3. Nevertheless, the strong form is used for unaccented function words in certain position:

   • usually, for a preposition when it is between a weak syllable and a pronoun, to help the rhythm

   • always, when a function word is stranded (= left exposed by a syntactic operation involving the movement or deletion of the word o which it depends):

4. It is important for learners of English to use weak forms appropriately. Otherwise, listeners may think they are emphasizing a word where this is not really so. Equally, native speakers should not be misled into supposing that careful or declamatory speech demands strong forms throughout. One exception is the pronunciation style used for singing, where strong forms are often used. Even here, though, articles are usually weak.

X Spelling-to-sound

1. Where the spelling is x, the pronunciation is regularly ks, as in six. Less commonly, it is gz, and occasionally z or kʃ.

2. The pronunciation gz is found mainly in words beginning ex- before a stressed vowel, for example exist. There is a variant pronunciation with kz. However, in words beginning exce-, exci-, the pronunciation is ks, with the c silent, as in exceeded.

3. The pronunciation is regularly z at the beginning of a word, as in xerox, anxiety.

4. The pronunciation is kʃ in words ending -xious, -xion, -xure, for example, crucifixion, anxious.

5. ks is also regularly written

cks, as in kicks

ks, as in thanks

cc, as in accident

6. x is silent in certain names and other words borrowed from French, as in prix.