Савчук. Foreign trade

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LOADING

Before the commencement of loading the ship all necessary preparations should be made both in the port and on board the ship to be loaded. First of all, the cargo plan must be drawn up. In Russian ports this document is usually drawn up at the Chief Controller’s Office since this office directs cargo work in the port, while in foreign ports the ship Agent and the Master draw up the cargo plan.

Before loading the Chief Stevedore (or Boss Stevedore as he is called sometimes), who is in charge of loading the ship, secures the necessary number of stevedore gangs, obtains port cargo handling facilities, if necessary, and supplies the tackles which the stevedores need. He also supervises the correct tonnage allotment for the holds. In the process of loading the Chief Stevedore checks up if cargo ensures the stability of the ship loaded. It is also his duty to see that the cargo should be properly secured from shifting.

On board the ship the cargo officer sees to that all necessary preparations for loading should be made. Under his supervision the crewmen clear the hatches. They roll back the tarpaulins from the hatches, remove hatchcovers, remove beams. The crewmen also get ready the ship’s winches, derricks and cranes, if any.

Different kinds of cargo require different equipment and appliances. So, for loading cases steel slings, nets and bullets are necessary; bags require nets and canvas slings; heavy lifts are loaded either with heavy duty derricks (or “jumbo” derricks as they are also called), the lifting capacity of which is over 5 tons, or with ship’s or quay cranes; for loading flowing cargoes elevators and grabs are used; for loading containers there are gantry cranes and container bridges having container claws; for loading RO_RO vessels or various sorts of vehicles (such as autotrucks, forklift trucks, trailers and others0 are used; as to tankers, the are loaded with the help of pipelines and houses.

GENERAL CARGOES

The most industrial products and semi-manufactured goods belong to general cargoes. General cargoes are the most valuable ones. They require the expenditure of much labour while loading and unloading. Storage and transportation of a lot of tare are very expensive too.

General cargoes comprise goods of the following types: bagged, baled, barreled, boxed, metals and machinery, heavyweights, goods in packages, containers and timber cargoes.

General cargoes are usually transported differently packed.

Units of especially heavy cargo are frequently carried on deck. Locomotives, lorries, crates of heavy machinery such as transformers and extremely large length of heavy timber (logs) and small consignments of general cargoes which may damage other cargo are also given deck stowage.

Cargo carried on deck is shipped at “shipper’s risk”, unless contracted otherwise, but nevertheless responsibility falls upon the ship to counteract to any possibility of loss of damage.

Proper means of fastening the cargo must be provided by lashings. Protection from the sun and weather can be obtained by the use of tarpaulins.

Let’s consider some types of general cargoes which are carried by dry-cargo ships.

Cotton cargo. It is shipped in tightly pressed bales but it is accompanied by fire risk. The preparation of a hold or compartment for this cargo is primarily directed towards lessening the risk of fire. Cotton is liable to produce heat and is also subject to spontaneous combustion. Any space in which cotton is to be stowed should be perfectly dry, well aired and absolutely free from any oil stains.

If cotton cargo follows a clean general cargo efficient sweeping and airing will be sufficient, but if cotton follows a coal or the like cargo, it is necessary to wash the space of holds, due attention being given to drying.

Rice cargo calls for a very elaborate and efficient system of ventilation for two reasons. Firstly, rice evolves a certain amount of carbonic acid gas, and secondly its moisture content leads to the cargo from certain points of iron work, unless necessary precautions are taken. The rice cargo is liable to heat fairly quickly, and this fact associated with loss of moisture, explains the loss of weight in transit

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varying from one to three per cent. The floor of the hold should be covered with thick battens laid athwartships, and boards laid fore and aft.

Sugar cargo. Apart from the general preparations of cleaning and drying the hold sugar is a cargo which demands absolute freedom from dampness and avoidance of any contact with iron or steel. Sugar is carried mainly in bags. It may be either “dry” or “green”. Dry sugar is more highly refined than green sugar, the former being almost free from syrupy content while the latter is a wet nature. Dampness will result in considerable drainage in the form of syrup which will damage the remainder of the cargo, but it causes the bags to stick together in the form of solid blocks. So “green” sugar and “dry” sugar should not to be stowed together. The bulkheads and sides of the hold space should be covered with separation cloths. Bare ironwork should be avoided.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF CARGO

The cargo which merchant ships carry can be divided into two basic types: bulk cargo which is usually carried loose and general cargo which consists of a variety of goods packed separately. Stowage of bulk cargo doesn©t as a rule present problems while general cargo may present many problems because each item, which is different in shape and size, may require its own type of packaging and stowing.

Liquid bulk cargo is carried in tankers. Dry bulk cargo, which includes grain, iron ore, coal and sugar, is carried in bulk carriers

Self-trimming holds are loaded automatically by buckets on a conveyor belt system or through large tubes. In the discharging port it is unloaded by huge grabs or b suction tubes which are called elevators.

General goods may be carried in bags, bales, cases or steel drums. Separate pieces of machinery may be carried unpacked. Cargoes which have a strong odour, such as tobacco and rubber, can taint delicate cargoes, such as tea and rice.

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Cargoes which are dusty, such as cement and fertilizers, leave a residue behind them. Heavy cargoes must not be stowed on top of fragile ones. Perishable cargoes such as meat, fruit and dairy produce, are carried in ships with refrigerated holds. Some food, such as fish, is frozen solid, other food, such as fruit, is only chilled.

PACKING AND DISPATCH

Anyone who has ever tried to pack a Christmas parcel and who has known the frustration that this seemingly simple operation can entail will agree that packing is an art. So badly is it often done that by the time the parcel reaches its destination it may be reduced to a shapeless mass by the not very gentle handling it has received on its journey. Only really ©healthy©parcels come through the ordeal of transport unscathed.

The real art of packing is to get the contents into a nice, compact shape that will stay that way during the roughest journey, and wrap the lot with a good strong cover of some kind. Somewhere between the thin brown paper parcel that tears open at the first touch and the heavy box that gets there all right but costs more in postage than the contents are worth, lies the happy medium that makes the whole thing practical.

This, on a large scale, is the problem that faces the despatch department of every firm, especially the export firm. The buyer has a right to expect that his goods will reach him in perfect condition, and the seller has to pack them in such a way that they will do so. Nothing is more infuriating to a buyer than to find his goods damaged, or part missing on arrival:

And nothing is more likely to lose a customer. In the export trade serious delays may result, causing the customer great loss. It is because of these dangers that large export firms have established a special department for export packing, and the whole question is under regular review. New packing materials are being developed which are light and strong, and new methods being found to ensure the safe transport-of heavier goods. Many export firms employ a specialist export packer or forwarding agent to do their packing for them.

The general plan in all packing is to make the goods secure for the kind of journey they have to make, but to keep the package as small and light as possible. Transport costs on land usually depend on the weight, but on the sea the size of the package is also important.

PACKING CONTAINERS

Bag Generally made of paper, linen, canvas, rubber, or plastic. ( ) Sack A larger, stronger version of a bag, usually made of jute. ( )

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Carton Made of light but strong cardboard, or fibreboard, it has double lids and bottoms which are fixed together. Sometimes several cartons are made up into a single package, held by metal bands. ( )

Box Stronger than a carton, made of wood, cardboard or metal, sometimes withfolding (hinged) lid. ( )

Case A strong container made of wood. For extra strength, cases may have battens fixed to their tops, bottoms and sides. When thin wood is used, metal bands or wires will be passed around the case. Cases are often lined with various materials to prevent damage by water, air, insects, etc. ( ,

)

Crate This is like a case, but is not fully enclosed. It has a bottom and a frame, and is sometimes open at the top. Crates are often built for the particular thing they have to carry. Machinery packed in crates needs a special bottom, called a skid, to facilitate handling. ( )

Container A very large, robust, metal construction, varying in length from about ten to about forty feet. It is normally sealed at the consignor©s factory and transported unopened until it reaches its destination. Containers are carried by rail, road and by ship. They may be watertight and airtight, and goods sent in them cannot be lost or stolen. Containers are a recent development, and they can make transportation very economical.( )

Drum A cylindrical container for liquids and powders, usually made of metal or plastic, but sometimes wood or strong cardboard. ( )

Barrel A wooden drum. Hoops are used to strengthen barrels. There are various sizes of barrels, and some are known as casks, hogsheads and kegs.

( , )

Bale A package of soft goods (usually textiles), wrapped in protective material.

( , )

Tin (U.S.A. can) A small metal container which paint, oil and a variety of foodstuffs are packed in. ( )

Carboy A glass container, used for chemicals, protected in a padded metal or wicker cage. ( , )

Bundle Miscellaneous goods packed without container. ( , ,

).

Use these words to complete the phrases below:

Bag, bale, bundle, case, carboy, carton, cask, chest, crate, drum, roll, sack.

Note: crate = case; sack = bag; cask = barrel; box = any solid-sided square container.

(a)A … of machinery

(b)A … of oil

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(c)A … of newsprint

(d) A … of wine

(e)A … of wheat

(f)A … of cotton

(g)A … of beer

(h)A … of tea

(i)A … of pipes

(j)A … of bottles

(k)A … of apples

(l)A … of chemicals

DISCHARGING

Discharging (unloading) is accomplished under the supervision of a stevedore and is performed by dockers usually headed by a foreman. When the ship is to be unloaded the Second Mate (Cargo Officer) gives a Cargo plan and Bill of Lading to the stevedore. According to these documents the latter begins unloading the ship.

The crewmen get ready winches and cranes, derricks, shackles, blocks, slings, sling hooks, chain slings, timber dogs, falls of tackle, guys.

All these appliances should be preliminary inspected for possible signs of wear. When the stevedore made sure that cargo gear was all right, he should arrange some wire nets, trays, pallets, wire slings, rope slings and canvas slings for unloading cargoes from the holds. The unloading operation is the process of lifting the cargo pieces from the holds and lowering them down on the quay. The number of cargo units placed either on a pallet, tray or any sling is called a draft.

Fork-lift trucks and lorries deliver cargoes to the warehouses. Sometimes the cargoes may be unloaded directly from the ship’s holds into lighters. If there are some extraweights in the holds they may be unloaded by heavy lift cranes, heavy derricks, gantries or even by floating cranes. the condition of the cargo pieces should be noted on the spot. Damaged packages, torn sacks and leaky barrels are put aside immediately.

BREAK-BULK PACKING

Nowadays more goods in foreign trade are carried in large containers. But there are still many ports and ships which use the old kind of packing. This means goods are packed separately (break-bulk) and not in bulk quantities.

Usually, when we talk of packaging we mean the wrapping of products for display in shops such as packets of biscuits, boxes of matches and jars of jam. The

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term packing refers to larger quantities packed for transport such as tea chests, crates of machinery and barrels of wine.

Divide this list of words into two under packing and packaging:

Bales; barrels; bottles; crates; jars; packets.

Find words in the text having these meanings:

(a)in modern times

(b)exhibition

(c)amounts

(d)goods in separate packing

MARKING

There are 3 principal types of marking which may have to be done on export packages:

∙The consignees’ own distinctive marks.

∙Any official mark required by authorities.

∙Special directions or warnings.

In addition, weight and dimensions may be required.

Good clear marking is essential if the goods are not to go astray, and for this reason marks are usually made by paint, inks or dyes through a metal stencil. Wooden cases are sometimes marked by burned impression in the wood itself.

Under 1 we have the shippers’ or importers’ own marks, which are registered and so serve as identification. These marks are as important to the many people engaged in shipping as the address on an envelope is to the postman. They include the name of the port of destination. Under 2 we have special marks demanded by the country of export or import. Some countries require the name of the country of origin of the goods to be marked on every package, and weight and dimensions may also be required.

Under 3 we have some special instructions regarding manner of handling, loading, lifting, etc., and various warnings both for the owner’s and the carrier’s benefit.

In the past it very often happened that even clearly marked containers were roughly handled or wrongly stored – simply because the stevedores loading or unloading them could not understand the directions and warnings! For this reason the practice has developed of stenciling symbols representing warnings and directions: these can be understood by speakers of any language.

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FREIGHT RATES: THE STOWAGE FACTOR

The price of sending goods by sea, the freight charge, is measured either by volume or weight. If the goods are made of heavy materials such as iron and steel the freight is usually calculated according to weight. But if the goods are made of light materials such as fruit or furniture the freight is calculated according to volume.

The measurement ton for sea freight is 40 cubic feet (over 1 cubic metre). If 1 ton of the goods takes up less space in the ship than 40 cubic feet 91.1323 m) then freight is charged according to weigh. If 1 ton of the goods takes up more space than 40 cubic feet, freight is calculated according to volume.

When you export goods and want to know the cost of freight, you need to know the stowage factor of the goods. The stowage factor is the weight of 40 cubic feet of the goods.

Tick whether these statements are true or false:

(a)40 cubic feet is a bit less than 1 cubic metre.

(b)40 cubic feet is a bit more than 1 cubic metre.

(c)Cement and sand are charged freight by weight.

(d)Tea in chests is charged freight by weight.

(e)Freight charges are calculated by volume and weight.

Match the expressions on the left with the explanations on the right:

Discuss how the freight would be calculated on the following types of cargo.

Begin like this: I think the freight on fruit would be calculated by volume. I think the freight on sand would be calculated by weight.

STOWAGE

Stowage is the placing of cargoes either in ship’s holds or on her deck. The method of stowage must ensure the following:

The preservation of crew and ship from danger of injury arising from the manner in which the cargo is stowed.

To protect the cargo from damage, loss or deterioration, and to ensure its “sound delivery”.

The economy of cargo space that depends on the vessel’s earning capacity.

The highest possible rate of port speed, i.e. the rate at which the vessel is capable to load or discharge (unload) her cargo.

A plan showing the disposition of cargoes throughout the ship should be drawn up in all cases. It is called stowage or cargo plan

The cargo plan should be drawn up carefully. It will make the distribution of cargo pieces in the holds easier and it will help to avoid colour should be used to indicate the cargo for each separate port.

While stowing the cargo the stevedore and the cargo officer should ensure the ship’s stability and seaworthiness. Cargo must be stowed and fastened reliably to avoid shifting if ship rolls and pitches during a storm. A reliable fastening the cargo prevents possible damage from chafing, breaking and crushing.

Special attention should be paid to the stowage of barrels. For this kind of cargo bottom stowage is preferable in order that leakage may find access to the bilges without risk of damage to other cargo.

The method of stowage depends on the kind of the cargo. Light cargoes are stowed on top of heavy ones, the latter being given bottom stowage.

The stevedores and ship’s cargo officers use such a term as “broken stowage”, which is used to express space which is lost and unoccupied by cargo between and round the packages, space occupied by dunnage; space at sides, ends and on top of cargo, also in way of pillers, bulkheads, stiffeners, etc.

This loss of space varies according to the nature of the cargo carried with free flowing cargoes like grain, sand, etc., provided they are properly trimmed, the loss is small.