Lexical transformation

The reasons for lexical transformation are as follows:

• Complete/partial discrepancies (lack of correspondence) in the lexical systems of the source language and target language. Many English words have no adequate counterparts in the Ukrainian language.

e.g. exposure 1) виставляння; 2) незахищеність; 3) відкриття; 4) місце розташування.

e.g. He died of exposure

The meaning of many verbs, especially phrasal, is considerably modified or even changed beyond recognition by the use of prepositions. The role of prepositions in modifying the meaning of the verb is unparalleled in Ukrainian and requires lexical means of expression in the target language:

e.g. the war of roses lasted on and off for 30 years.

• Differences in the semiotic structure of the individual source language and target language units and the scope of meanings

e.g. to sell: this is not the equivalent lacking words but in Ukraine we use usually sell goods and services. In the English speaking world we also sell immaterial objects (ideas, theories…).

e.g. The new UN resolution on Iraq is carefully worded to be easily sold

• Different sociologic norms and stereotypes: some words are used in the indirect transferred meaning. The languages may have different stereotypes of using words for imagery purposes:

e.g. the new Honda model will be completely different animal form the old ones. Буде цілком відрізнятися

Types of lexemes

According to Retsger the types of lexical transformation are as follows:

• Generalization;

• Differentiation;

• Descriptive translation;

• antonymic translation;

• Omission;

• Compensation of looses.

Generalisation – is a subset of a word of narrower meaning for target language units of a broader meaning.

e.g. Charles was found guilty of high treason and beheaded (його старатили)

Differentiation is the substitution of a lexical unit of broader meaning for a unit of narrower meaning:

e.g. the book was made into a successful film.

The need for differentiation is often called forth by the very abstract nature of many English words that have no adequate counterpart parts in Ukrainian and must be rendered by more concrete renomination.

Descriptive translation. In most cases it is the replacement of an equivalent lacking word or phrase of the source language text for its description employing the language units familiar to the target language speaker. E.g. friendly fire – вогонь по своїм

Descriptive translation doesn’t always involve equivalent lacking words sometimes it may be done for sociologic reasons as in the following:

e.g. Edward is surprised by what he hears from Mr. Smith Едвард здивований тим, що йому каже…

Antonymic translation is the substitution of lexical unit for it target language antonym with the corresponding changes in the lexic-grammatical structures of the target language sentence to preserve the original meaning of the message. Sometimes it’s the only possible way of rendering the target language phrase.

e.g. take your time – не поспішай;

Anything is better than treason – нема нічого гіршого за зраду.

But: the war is certain to come;

Omission is the transformation of mixed lexical-grammatical nature which occurs whenever some elements of the utterance are dimmed, communicatively redundant or irrelevant for the target language recipient.

e.g. there are reports that (a number of) people were killed but we don’t know exactly how many

e.g. (earlier) today I spoke to managers

Some words of generalized meaning have a tendency of being omitted while their meaning is absorbed by the other target language lexical components:

e.g. the last thing I felt doing was dancing. Good manner seemed to be a thing of the past.

Compensation is used to make up for the loses either of lexical, grammatical of sociological origin, especially when rendering local or social dialect.

Ungrammatical sentences are often used to show vernacular or highly colloquial variant of speech. In many cases they can’t be translated on the same level of language hierarchy. That’s why they’re substituted for lexical indicators of the functional variety of language: dialects, jargon, slang.