Module 3. Transistors and integrated circuits

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text. Find out the meaning of the words you don’t understand.

The transistor is a common term for a number of solid-state electronic devices which are used as active components of electronic circuit. It may be used as an amplifier, detector or switch. The transistor is capable to perform many of functions of its precursor, the vacuum tube, but it is more reliable, more flexible, and smaller in size, and it consumes less electricity. So it has almost entirely replaced the vacuum tube in electronic devices. Its application ranges from small radios to the most sophisticated space probes. The transistor revolutionized both electronic communication and computation.

The simplest transistor consists of three layers of different semiconducting materials. Common semiconductors (silicon, germa­nium or gallium arsenide) have a perfectly regular diamond-cubic lattice that acts, at low temperatures, as an insulator. If small amounts of impurities with different valence structure are added to pure semiconductor that improves its conductivity. For example, doping tetravalent silicon with quinquevalent phosphorus gives an excess of electrons and provides a conductivity of n- (negative) type. When atoms of trivalent boron are substituted for some of the silicon atoms, each captures one electron from a neighboring silicon atom, leaving an empty space, or hole. Such holes behave as though they were freely moving particles with a positive charge, and thus they also serve to increase the silicon’s conductivity. Such doped material is of p- (positive) type. In the so-called n-p-n type transistor, the first part, called the emitter, is doped to give it an excess of negative charges; the second, the base, is doped to give it excess positive charges; and the third, the collector, is doped to give it an excess of negative charges.

The voltage applied between the emitter and collector is fixed and relatively high, while the voltage between the emitter and the base is low and variable – it is the incoming signal. When there is no base voltage, the resistance from the emitter to the collector is high, and no current flows. A small voltage across the base to the emitter, however, lowers the resistance and allows a large output current to flow from emitter to collector. The transistor thus acts as a signal amplifier.

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the equipment’s sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined different electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit more and more components on a single chip. As a result, instruments and machines like computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip.

amplification amplifier arsenide base collector detector emitter impurity incoming integrated circuit lattice output

підсилення підсилювач арсенід база колектор випрямляч емітер домішка вхідний інтегральна схема решітка вихідний

quartz rock quinquevalent semiconductor solid switch transistor (transfer + resistor) vacuum tube valence to dope to squeeze

кварц (мінерал) п’ятивалентний напівпровідник твердий перемикач транзистор радіолампа валентність модифікувати втискувати

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What are the modern applications of transistors?

2. How did the quartz rock revolutionize electronics?

3. What are the names of contacts in a common transistor?

4. Which semiconductors are most commonly used in electronics?

5. What is the mechanism of amplification of electric current with transistor?

6. What types of transistors do you know?

7. Who and when invented the IC?

Exercise 3. Give synonyms to the following words:

gadget, complex (adjective), constituent, isolator, valve, adjacent, impedance, able to be changed, progress, input, quantity, substance, with five valences.

Граматичні відомості

Модальні дієслова

На відміну від повнозначних або смислових дієслів, модальні дієслова (Modal Verbs)виражаютьне дію або стан, а наше до них ставлення:personal attitude.За допомогою цих дієслів виражається необхідність (necessity),імовірність-можливість(probability-possibility),очікування(expectation),дозвіл-заборону(permission-prohibition),порада(advice).Крім того, ці дієслова здатні виражати ступінь інтенсивності, відтінки цього відношення, імовірності тієї чи іншої події зараз, в минулому та майбутньому. Модальні дієслова ніколи не використовуються самостійно, а тільки з інфінітивом смислового дієслова, причому цей інфінітив для всіх модальних дієслів, окрім ought, використовується без to:

I can doit. –Я можу зробити це.

You ought to gothere. –Тобі слід піти туди.

Модальні дієслова є недостатніми, оскільки вони не мають всіх тих форм, які мають інші дієслова. У всіх модальних дієслів відсутні форми Participle I і Participle II, а також інфінітив та герундій, багато з них не мають і форми Past. Цей пробіл компенсується тим, що багато з модальних дієслів мають еквівалентні дієслівні сполучення (табл. 8).

Слід одразу зробити застереження, що практично кожне модальне дієслово має досить широкий спектр значень та відтінків, для більш широкого знайомства з якими читачеві треба звернутися до літератури зі списку, наведеного наприкінці цього посібника.

Модальні дієслова часто комбінуються з формою Perfect смислового дієслова, виражаючи думку співрозмовника щодо події, яка в дійсності не відбулась (або не мала відбутися, але відбулась):

You should have helped him (повинні допомогти, хоча ви цього не зробили).

You could have toldme earlier (могли б сказати мені раніше).

Таблиця 8

Еквіваленти модальних дієслів

Modal verb	Uses	Past form	Equivalent*
will can may must** ought to, should*** shall	future, willingness, polite request, wish (would like), repeated action ability, possibility, permission, polite request (informal) permission (formal), request (with “I”) necessity, prohibition (negative) advisability, necessity polite question, intention, warning, future with “I” and “we”	would could might – – should	be going to be able to be allowed to have (got) to had better be going to

*тільки для частини значень;

**в запитальних та негативних реченнях поряд з must використо-вується дієслово need;

***формально should є формою минулого часу дієслова shall, останнє, однак, в цьому значенні практично не використовується.

Практично всі модальні дієслова можуть виражати ступінь імовірності (certainty) тієї чи іншої події. Якщо розташувати дієслова в порядку зростання імовірності (від 20-30 % до 100 %), ми отримаємо приблизно таку послідовність:

might, may, could < should, ought to, would < must, be going to, will.

Класична ілюстрація подібної послідовності наведена в багатьох посібниках з граматики, виданих в США та Великій Британії:

• There’s a knock at the door. Who you suppose it is?

• В двері стукають. Як ви гадаєте, хто це?

It might beSally.

It may beSally.

It could beSally.

It’s going to be Sally. –І так далі.

Особливим чином перекладаються сполучення дієслова can з наступним перфектним інфінітивом у негативних та питальних реченнях:

Can he have said that? – Невже він це сказав?

He can’t have said that. – Не може бути, щоб він це сказав.

Модальні дієслова ніколи не використовуються безпосередньо одне за іншим, хоча сполучення модального дієслова з еквівалентом іншого модального дієслова є звичайним явищем:

If this is possible, the opponent may be able to solve all of the parts far easier than the supposedly complex whole. – Якщо це можливо, опонент мабуть зможе вирішити задачу не загалом, а частинами, що зрозуміло є більш простим.

Exercise 1. Insert modal verbs the best suited with words in brackets.

A poor understanding of the requirements can lead to implementing a complicated architecture that ______ (be, not) necessary.

Back doors are much more common than you _______ (think).

Before the firewall software is installed, the operating system ______ (harden).

To prevent spoofing, public keys ______ (authenticate, or validate, or certificate) as representing who they claim to represent. This ____ (be) almost as difficult as the conventional key distribution problem and generally requires complex protocols.

This is Steve’s laptop, isn’t it? – It (be, not) _______ his. He doesn’t have a laptop computer, at least not that I know of. It (belong) ________ to Lucy or to Linda.

Exercise 2. Give examples of polite questions, requests and offers using the modal verbs: would, should, could, will, shall, can, and may.

Комунікативна практика

Інструктування, перевірка розуміння

Listen to the conversation.

Nick: Ann, could you help me?

Ann: With pleasure. And what seems to be the trouble?

Nick: I can’t turn your CD player on. It looks like computer. I’ve never seen such model.

Ann: Oh, it’s Japanese. It looks a little bit sophisticated, but, as a matter of fact, very easy to use.

Nick: How does it work?

Ann: Well, first thing you have to do is to plug it in. Push the ‘on’ button. You see the green lamp lights.

Nick: And how can I put the disk in?

Ann: You should press ‘eject’ button. You see how the cover opens. Then put the disk here and close the cover. Is that clear?

Nick: Aha… Yes, thank you.

Ann: Why don’t you try it yourself now? ... That’s right. Now you see the small display shines. You can press cursor buttons like those on computer’s keyboard to select an item in the menu. Then press ‘yes’ button to exit the menu. … Are you with me?

Nick: Yes. That’s great!

Як показано в прикладі, опис послідовності дій супроводжується зв’язками типу:

The first thing you do is …

Then you have to …

After you’ve done that …

Крім того, буває доцільно контролювати розуміння слухачем викладеного з використанням фраз розмовної мови:

Is it clear? OK so far? Got that?

Інколи буває необхідно застерегти слухача від неправильних дій:

Be careful not to press this button because… Make sure you remember… Don’t forget…

Exercise. Give your classmates instructions on how to use the following objects. Make sure if your partner understand your instruction.

Calculator, penknife, computer, photo camera, dictionary, fax machine, copier.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 100-101 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Use the following modal verbs in sentences of your own. Demonstrate various opportunities of these verbs to express ability, possibility, permission, advice, etc.

Will, would, shall, should, ought (to), may, might, can, could, must, need.

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences with appropriate modal verbs or their equivalents.

1. _____ I leave the class now, please. I’ve finished my work.

2. Why didn’t you answer the phone? – I (not) _______hear a phone ringing at that moment, I was in the bath.

3. Where are you going to spend your vacations? – I _______ go to my parents or I ___________ go camping.

4. You (not) _________ tell anyone of yesterday’s meeting. It’s a secret.

5. I (not) _________ work at weekends, but sometimes I do.

6. We have a plenty of paper, so you (not) _________ buy any more.

7. You _________ visit your granny, she really missed you.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What gives the transistor an advantage over the vacuum tube?

2. What does simple transistor consist of?

3. How is it possible to regulate semiconductors’ conductivity?

4. Why don’t we use for doping semiconductors such metals as copper or aluminium with loosely bounded electrons to stimulate n-type conductivity?

5. Do you know something about rectifiers on semiconductors? How do they work?

6. Which common household appliances and instruments use transistors and integrated circuits?

7. Why is low consumption of energy is so important for modern electronic equipment and devices?

Exercise 2. Insert the words the best suited to the sentences using the list below. Each of words in the list is used only once. Then listen and check your guesses.

Semiconductor materials may be divided into two _________ groups: intrinsic and extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor is chemically very pure, and its __________ is poor. Some common intrinsic semiconductors are single ________ of silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. These may be converted into the more useful extrinsic _____________ by the addition of small amounts of impurities. This process, known as doping, alters the ___________ properties of the semiconductor and _______ its conductivity.

For example, the atom of an intrinsic semiconductor such as _________ silicon has four electrons in its outermost shell. These electrons attach the ________ atom to its neighboring atoms and so are not free to move through the solid. Accordingly, since electric ________ relies on charge motion, pure silicon is a poor _________ of electricity. If arsenic atoms, with five outer electrons, are _________ for some of the silicon atoms, the fifth electron is not needed for binding to adjacent atoms and is free to move through the solid. Thus, ________ silicon with arsenic improves the silicon’s conductivity. On the other hand, if a silicon atom is _______ by an indium atom, which has three valence________, an electron is missing from one covalent bond, _______ an empty space, so-called hole. This hole can move about, just as the free electron could. A region with such indium ___________ is called p-type silicon because the holes act like carriers of positive charges, and thus they also serve to _________ the silicon’s conductivity. An extrinsic semiconductor is commonly _________ as n- or p-type, depending on whether the impurity added has an excess of negative charge (n-type) or a deficiency of negative _________ (p-type).

In the p-n-p type transistor, the first part, ___________ the emitter, is doped to give it an excess of positive charges; the second, the base, is doped to give it _______ negative charges; and the third, the collector, is doped like the first part to give it an excess of _________ charges.

substituted general classified leaving positive crystals conductivity excess electrical improves elemental silicon current conductor doping replaced electrons increase charge semiconductors called impurities
binding covalent extrinsic semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor	зв’язування (хімічне) ковалентний напівпровідник з власною провідністю напівпровідник з домішковою провідністю

Граматичні відомості

Модальні дієслова та майбутній час

Надзвичайно важливою функцією модальних дієслів є відображення за їх допомогою подій в майбутньому. В першу чергу це має відношення до дієслова will (would). В таблиці 9 розглянуто приклади використання will з різними аспектами (часами) смислового дієслова to study.

Ще в середині ХХ століття нормою англійської мови було використання з першою особою (I, we) не will, a shall, однак зараз таке використання набуває відтінку архаїзму.

Таблиця 9

Утворення форм майбутнього часу з модальним дієсловом will

Verb tenses	Приклад	Пояснення
Simple	He will study tomorrow.	Він буде вчитися завтра (разова подія в майбутньому).
Progressive	He will be studying at 5 o’clock.	Процес протягом певного періоду в майбутньому.
Perfect	He will already have studied chemistry before he starts* math.	Він вивчить хімію ще до того, як розпочне вчити математику (результат, завершення однієї дії до початку наступної).
Perfect Progressive	He will have been studying for an hour by the time we get home.	Процес з певною тривалістю в певний період у майбутньому.

*Зверніть увагу, що на відміну від нашої мови обставина часу before he starts використовується в теперішньому часі.

Якщо йдеться про майбутнє в контексті минулого часу (“майбутнє в минулому”), замість will/shall використовується форма минулого часу would/should:

He knew that she would return next week. – Він знав, що вона повернеться наступного тижня.

У певних ситуаціях для опису майбутнього можуть використовуватися також інші модальні дієслова:

We can settle it tomorrow. – Ми зможемо владнати це завтра.

Деякі труднощі в осіб, які вивчають англійську мову, виникають в зв’язку з тим, що форма дієслова would часто використовується в низці інших функцій. По-перше, вона виражає умовній спосіб, тобто перекладається дієсловом з часткою “би”):

In this situation, the absolute best sample we could hope to see would be something like (0,1,0,1,0,1,...), which would represent an even, balanced distribution over the range. – В цій ситуації найкращим з можливих варіантів може бути щось типу (0,1,0,1,0,1,...), що дало би однорідний збалансований розподіл в межах області.

По-друге, дієслово would (інколи також і will) використовується для відображення звичайних подій, що повторюються:

The worst part of this is that a successful attack of this type consumes few resources, need not ‘break’ the cipher itself, and may provide just the kind of white-collar desktop intelligence a bureaucracy would love. – Найгіршою стороною цього є те, що успішна атака подібного типу не потребує багатьох ресурсів, не передбачає “злому” пароля як такого, і може розглядатися всього лише як збір інформації в середовищі “білих комірців”, який так люблять бюрократи.

Наприкінці розглянемо ще декілька типових прикладів використання модальних дієслів:

The classic problem with passwords is that they must be remembered by ordinary people. – Класична проблема паролів полягає в тому, що їх повинні пам’ятати звичайні люди.

However, since the trials should have approximately a simple Poisson distribution (which has only a single parameter), we could be a bit more clever and fit the results to the expected distribution, thus perhaps developing a bit more accuracy. – Однак оскільки результати випробовувань мають приблизно відповідати простому розподілу Пуассона (котре має одиничний параметр), ми могли би бути трохи більш завбачливими і розташувати результати у відповідності з розподілом, який очікується, що, можливо, забезпечить дещо більшу точність.

Even if an organization is not connected to the Internet, it may still want to establish an internal security policy to manage user access to portions of the network and protect sensitive or secret information. – Навіть якщо організація не підключена до Інтернету, вона все ж таки може прагнути розробити внутрішню політику безпеки для керування доступом користувача до частини мережі і захисту чутливої або секретної інформації.

A certain amount must be used to insulate the spindle, but this should be kept outside the electrostatic field. – Деяку кількість треба використати для ізоляції шпинделя, але його слід тримати зовні електростатичного поля.

Exercise 1. Rewrite sentences for the past and future. Use equivalents of modal verbs (see Chart 8, p.102), when it is necessary.

Example:

I can do it. – I’ll be able to do it. – I could do it (I was able to do it.)

1. You must be here in time.

2. You should be polite.

3. He may read this book in the library.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions. Use appropriate modal verbs to express probability.

1. What are your classmates going to do this afternoon (this weekend, during vacations)?

2. What’s the weather forecast for tonight?

3. Why is Peter missing his lessons today?

4. Why are some people afraid of working with computers?

Комунікативна практика

Плани на майбутнє, очікування, передбачення, сподівання

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and answer the questions. Discuss with your classmate your plans for the future.

Peter: Hi, Helen!

Helen: Oh, hi…

Peter: How are you?

Helen: Thanks, fine. How are you?

Peter: Good.

Helen: What are you going to do next weekend?

Peter: Well, I’m not sure… I think I might go to my parents. You know, the weather isn’t going to be fine. And I’m passing my exam next Tuesday.

Helen: Lucky you!

Peter: Yeah… And my bike is out of order; I don’t think I’ll fix it before weekend.

Helen: Peter, where’s Ann? I haven’t seen her since John’s birthday party.

Peter: Oh, she’s overseas right now. She arrives tomorrow.

Helen: Give her my kind regards. I’ll call her.

Peter: Good bye!

Helen: Bye-bye!

1. Who are the speakers?

2. What are their intentions?

3. Which of intentions are definite and which are possible?

4. Where does the conversation take place?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 106-107 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences into English using modal verbs.

1. Вчитель запитав чи володіємо ми англійською мовою та запросив відвідати лекцію професора з Великої Британії.

2. Я маю піти туди негайно.

3. Ми отримали повідомлення, що наша доповідь відбудеться у вівторок.

4. Він не міг розмовляти вільно німецькою минулого року.

5. Тобі слід лишитися вдома та викликати лікаря.

6. Йому не можна було цього робити.

7. Невже він це зробив?

Exercise 3. Use the following groups of synonyms in sentences of your own.

1. To be educated at – to receive education.

2. To graduate (from, at) – to obtain one’s degree at (from).

3. To be associated with – to collaborate with – to work in collaboration with.

4. To win a prize – to be awarded a prize.

5. To deliver a lecture – to give a lecture.

6. To be recognized – to win recognition.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. First try to guess the missing words. Then listen and fill in the spaces.

The introduction of vacuum __________ at the beginning of the 20th century was the starting point of the rapid growth of modern _____________. With vacuum tubes the manipulation of signals became possible, which could not be done with the early _________ and telephone circuit or with the early transmitters using high-voltage sparks to _________ radio waves.

The simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains two ___________: the cathode, a heated filament or a small, heated, metal tube that emits electrons through thermionic emission; and the _________, or plate, which is the electron-collecting element. In diodes, the _________ emitted by the cathode are attracted to the plate only when the latter is ________ with respect to the cathode. When the plate is negatively _________, no current flows through the tube. If an alternating potential is applied to the plate, the tube passes current only during the positive halves of the cycle and thus acts as a __________.

The introduction of a third electrode, called a _______, interposed between the cathode and the anode, forms the triode, which for many years was the basic tube used for _________ current. The function of the grid is to control the current flow. At a certain negative _________, the grid, because it repels electrons, can impede the flow of electrons __________ the cathode and the anode. At lower negative potentials, the electron flow ________ on the grid potential. The grid usually consists of a network of fine _____ surrounding the cathode. The capacity of the triode to amplify depends on the small changes in the _________ between the grid and the cathode causing large changes in the number of electrons reaching the anode. Thus, the basic components of a triode _________ tube are comparable to those of the transistor which include the emitter corresponding to the heated ________ of the triode tube as the source of electrons.

Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely ________ by transistors, which are cheaper, smaller, and more _________. Tubes still play an important role in certain applications, however, such as in power stages in radio and television transmitters, and in scientific and military __________ that must resist strong voltage pulses which destroy transistors. The cathode ray _____ is still a base of many modern TVs and _________ monitors.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the diode used for?

2. What is the function of the additional electrode, the greed, in the vacuum triode?

3. Which devices of mentioned above are used for rectification of a direct current into alternating one?

4. What kinds of rectifying circuits with transistors or vacuum tubs do you know?

5. Do vacuum tubes have any advantages over transistors?

6. Are transistors more reliable than vacuum tubes?

7. What adjectives can be used with the noun “tube”?

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false in relation to the information in the text in the Exercise 1. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Any vacuum tube has at least three electrodes.

2. The electric current in the vacuum tube is a flow of positively charged ions.

3. The greed in a vacuum tube needs to be heated.

4. In certain condition the greed and the plate can emit electrons by themselves.

5. The intercity of electron stream in the vacuum tube always depend on voltage between the cathode and plate.

6. Transistors usually consume more power than vacuum tubes.

7. Nowadays most of people have never seen any vacuum tube.

Граматичні відомості

Безособові форми дієслова, інфінітив (the Infinitive)

Форми дієслів, як активні, так і пасивні (табл. 6, 7), змінюються у відповідності з особою та числом суб’єкта, дію чи стан якого вони виражають. Існують також дієслівні форми аналогічні формам нашої мови, які не змінюються відповідно до особи і виконують функції, близькі до іменникових (інфінітив, герундій) чи прикметникових (дієприкметник):

To readis pleasant. – Читати приємно (інфінітив).

After reading the letter he went out. – Прочитавши (після того як він прочитав) лист, він вийшов (герундій).

She looked at the woman reading a book. – Вона подивилась на жінку, яка читала книгу (дієприкметник теперішнього часу).

All books read by you are in the drawer. – Всі книги, які ти читаєш, в шухляді (дієприкметник минулого часу).

Інфінітив (невизначена форма дієслова) відповідає на запитання що робити?, що зробити?, має форми часу і стану – табл. 10.

Таблиця 10

Форми інфінітива

	Simple	Continuous	Perfect	Perfect Continuous
Active	to ask to write	to be asking to be writing	to have asked to have written	to have been asking to have been writing
Passive	to be asked to be written	-------	to have been asked to have been written	-------

Інфінітив може виражати дію взагалі, що не має відношення до конкретного об’єкта:

Inability to build high-voltage generators and motors gives to the transformers immediate recognition as a highly flexible link between the generation and distribution of electrical energy. – Неможливість створити високовольтні генератори та двигуни забезпечує потребу в трансформаторах як дуже гнучка проміжна ланка між виробником та користувачем електричної енергії.

Однак в більшості випадків об’єкт вказується конкретно і в залежності від характеру дії використовується активна чи пасивна форма інфінітива:

This software will be able to accept some sort of standard document format. – Ця програма зможе сприйняти певний тип стандартного формату документа.

This allows data to be enciphered in a combiner, and then deciphered in an extractor. – Це дозволяє зашифрувати дані в комбінаторі і потім дешифрувати в екстракторі.

Останній приклад також ілюструє можливість скорочення форми дієслова при слідуванні підряд двох однакових конструкцій: ми використовуємо deciphered замість to be deciphered.

Як уже згадувалось вище, після модальних дієслів, за винятком ought, інфінітив використовується без частки to:

Handling even minimal data expansion may be difficult in some systems. – У деяких системах навіть мінімальне розширення даних може викликати труднощі з їх обробленням.

Інфінітив також використовується без частинки to в низці інших випадків, зокрема після дієслів, “сприйняття” (perception verbs) – see, notice, feel, look at, hear, smell і т.д., а також після дієслів to make (змушувати), to have (просити), to let (дозволяти), to help (допомагати):

I have my mother cook a dinner.

I saw him run down the street.

I let him go there.

Однак в пасивному стані to зберігається:

He was seen to leave the room. He was let to go there.

Слід також пам’ятати, що після дієслова to get (домовлятися), однотипного з дієсловами to make і to have, інфінітив використовується як звично:

I got Peter to give me a ride.

Інфінітив в формі Perfect використовується в тих випадках, коли потрібно підкреслити, що дія, яка виражена інфінітивом, відбулась до часу дії, яка виражена основним дієсловом:

Anyway, the chopped light technique is known to have been used by Brattain to eliminate the effect of slow states. – У будь-якому разі відомо, що методика світлових імпульсів уже використовувалася Браттайном для усунення впливу повільних станів.

Інші форми інфінітива, згадані в таблиці 10, вживаються досить рідко.

Exercise 1. Translate infinitive constructions paying special attention to verbs to seem, to appear (здаватися, мабуть), likely (можливо).

1. This type of software sometimes seems to have yet another level of strength above the usual stream cipher.

2. Although ‘strength’ would seem to be the entire point of using a cipher, cryptography has no way to measure strength.

3. A cipher appears to reduce the protection of secret information to enciphering under some key, and then keeping that key secret.

4. It is also possible for a stream cipher to be re-keyed or re-originate frequently, and so appear to operate on ‘blocks.’

5. If the vectors happen to be perpendicular, we have a Cartesian coordinate system, but in any case we can locate any point on the plane by its position on the grid.

6. The results are likely to be correct.

7. The message is certain to come soon.

8. The weather appears to be improving.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences by using the Infinitive. Add a preposition if necessary.

1. I’d like _____________ Crimea this summer.

2. I want ______________ computer game tonight.

3. I can’t wait ___________ my friend. I really missed her.

4. Students of our Institute intend ___________ experts in high technology.

5. Its high technology appeals to parents as well as children, and it was relatively cheap __________.

6. Peter hopes _______________ all of his courses this term. So far his grades have been good.

7. The bill failed _____________ the House of Representatives.

Комунікативна практика

Приязнь та нелюбов

Listen to the conversation. Discuss with your classmate your likes and dislikes.

A: What do you enjoy doing?

B: Well, let me think ... I’m not sure, but I could probably work with computer.

A: Maybe you could be an accountant.

B: No, I can’t stand sitting at the desk all day long. And, as a matter of fact, I don’t like working with figures.

A: But what do you like to do?

B: Well, I love meeting new people; I’m tired of having some routine every day.

A: Are you worried about earning a lot of money?

B: Not at all. I don’t think it matters all that much.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 112-113 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Put particle ‘to’ before infinitive when it is necessary.

Yet the evolution of the large-scale structure of the universe depends very much on the details of the very first structures __ form.

Norman and his former students have worked for a number of years ___ increase the predictive ability of their model of the early universe, “basically waiting for the size of the supercomputers __ catch up to the spatial dynamic range that we need,” he explains.

You can’t make someone ___ stop smoking. They have _____ want _____ do it.

Anyone who has worked with firewall technology at all should be familiar with the terminology used __ describe it.

You must __ have used antivirus program before opening new documents.

Exercise 3. Translate Infinitive expressions.

1. Our chief wishes the work to be done at once.

2. I’d like him to be invited to our laboratory.

3. I’d like to be offered this position.

4. To understand the importance of this law we should consider the following examples.

5. The students have a good library to study in.

6. He worked hard not to lag behind the other students.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations in the sentences of your own:

rectification, intrinsic semiconductor, collector, amplification, integrated circuit, vacuum tube, semiconducting diode, thermionic emission, control element, doping.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences.

1. When atoms of trivalent boron are substituted for some of the tetravalent silicon atoms, …

2. Semiconductor materials may be divided into ...

3. The simplest transistor consists of …

4. Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely replaced by transistors because …

5. However tubes still play an important role in certain applications …

6. Electronic amplifiers are used …

7. The development of integrated circuits has revolutionized the fields of …

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Depending on the impurity added, the silicon may have a minority of mobile negative charge carriers (n-type) or a minority of positive charge carriers (p-type).

2. Improved manufacturing techniques now permit the production of a single chip with more than 3 hundred transistors on an area of less than several decimeters.

3. Because of its good conductivity some parts of certain integrated circuits are made of gold.

4. When the grid of a vacuum tube is positive, it repels electrons, and only a fraction of the electrons emitted by the cathode can reach the anode.

5. The bipolar transistor was invented in ancient Greece as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube.

Граматичні відомості

Специфічні випадки використання інфінітива, інфіні-тивних зворотів

Надзвичайно важливою функцією інфінітива, яка широко використовується, в тому числі і в науково-технічній літературі, є вираження наміру, мети:

I remained there (in order, so as)to seewhat would happen. – Я залишився там, щоб подивитись, що трапиться.

Сполучники in order, so as майже завжди лише маються на увазі, але не використовуються:

The new approach is a variant of using aircraft to ‘seed’ clouds. – Новий підхід є варіантом використання літака для того, щоб “засіяти” хмари.

We can measure the duration of ciphering operations and use that to revealthe key or data. – Ми можемо вимірювати тривалість операцій шифрування і використати це для розкриття паролів чи даних.

The use of the term ‘break’ can be misleading when an impractical amount of work is required to achievethe break. – Коли для здійснення злому, необхідно виконати надзвичайно великий, тобто практично неможливий об’єм роботи, використання терміна “злом” може ввести в оману.

Ще одним типом речень, які використовують інфінітив, є вирази, які містять слова too (надто) і enough (достатньо):

This is the obvious way to attack a cipher, and the way any cipher can be attacked, so ciphers are designed to have a large enough key-selected transformations to make this much too expensive to use in practice. – Це очевидний спосіб атаки на шифр, який може бути використаний для розкриття будь-яких шифрів, тому шифри створюються таким чином, щоб мати достатньо багато трансформацій, визначених паролем, і зробити цей шлях надто коштовним для практичного використання.

Інфінітив в різних формах використовується у стандартних граматичних конструкціях, так званих інфінітивних зворотах, що широко поширені як у письмовому, так і розмовному англійському мовленні. Розглянемо декілька найбільш характерних прикладів.

Інфінітив звичайно вживається після дієслів, що висловлюють бажання, прагнення, любов, ненависть: to want, to desire, to wish, should (would) like, to like, to hate; припущення: to expect, to think, to believe; наказ, прохання, вимогу: to order, to ask, to allow, та деяких інших.

I’d like him to be asked at once. – Я хотів би, щоб його одразу запитали.

I believe them to be experts in this field. – Я вважаю, що вони є фахівцями у цій галузі.

We expect Peter to arrive soon. – Ми очікуємо, що Петро скоро приїде.

I know the matter to have been discussed. – Я знаю, що вправа вже обговорена.

I think them to be walking in the garden. – Я думаю, що він зараз гуляє у саду.

Як бачимо з наведених прикладів, у подібних зворотах займенник та інфінітив, що слідує за цим займенником, виконують у реченні функцію одного члена речення, а саме додатка, відповідаючи на питання “чого?” або “що?”. Такі конструкції носять назву “об’єктний відмінок з інфінітивом” та звичайно перекладаються українською мовою як складнопідрядне речення. До речі, в англійській мові інколи теж можлива заміна цих зворотів на відповідне складне речення:

I think them to be walking in the garden. = I think that they are walking in the garden.

Але мовлення зазвичай фіксує перший з вказаних вище варіантів, тобто з інфінітивом.

Ще одним прикладом заміни складнопідрядного речення на просте, є використання звороту “називний відмінок з інфінітивом” (nominative with the Infinitive) замість складнопідрядного речення, де у головній частині присутній зворот з невизначеною особою типу it is reported, it is said, it seems та ін.

It is said that he has been living in Kyiv for a long time. = He is said to have been living …

It seems the prices are rising again. = The prices seem to be rising again.

У цьому випадку практично використовуються обидва варіанти, які перекладаються українською мовою як складно-підрядне речення. Для вказаного звороту характерно використання всіх можливих форм інфінітива як в активній, так і в пасивній формах.

The building is said to have already been built. – Кажуть, що будинок вже збудований.

Exercise 1. Add “in order” to infinitive structures if possible (when the structure expresses purpose).

Example: I’m going to install the program to protect my data. – Inserting is possible only for infinitive “to protect”: I’m going to install the program in order to protect my data.

1. You have to look in your dictionary to find out the meaning of the word.

2. Not to offend anyone, I did not tell them the real reason for my visit.

3. To be an expert in your field, you have to study for years.

4. The exploratory design is used to accumulate data to formulate more precise hypotheses and research questions.

5. The principal aim of this exploratory research is to gain a better understanding of franchising and the franchising decision.

6. He touched me gently to attract my attention.

7. Let’s go to eat something.

Exercise 2. Change complex sentences to simple ones using Infinitive expressions.

Example: It is said that they know the matter. They are said to know the matter.

1. It proved that he was an expert in electronics.

2. It is unlikely that he returns soon.

3. They say that prices will rise again.

4. I want that he will come here and help me.

5. He expected that I would come tonight.

6. I believe that they are honest people.

7. It seems that we will be late.

Комунікативна практика

Пропозиція допомоги. Згода та відмова

Пропонуючи допомогу, звертайтесь до співбесідника з ввічливим питанням (прямим або опосередкованим):

Can I help you?

Can I help you with that?

Would you like me to get it for you?

Do you think you can manage this on your own?

If you want, I could get it for you.

Any point in my getting it for you?

How about me getting it for you?

Is there anything I can do for you?

What seems to be the trouble?

Як звичайно, форма питання залежить від ступеня знайомства, віку співбесідників та інших обставин. Будьте обережні, інколи занадто ввічлива фраза може бути сприйнята як іронічна або навіть саркастична.

Ваша пропозиція може бути сприйнята або відхилена. Форма відповіді знов-таки суттєво залежить від вищезазначених факторів:

Thanks.

Thanks a lot.

Oh, would you? Thanks.

That’s nice of you, thanks.

Thank you, kind sir.

No, don’t bother, I can do it myself.

Thanks a lot, but I’m OK.

You could if I needed something.

Exercise 1. Work with your classmate. Offer some help: to pass something, to find out direction, to get acquainted with something, etc.

Exercise 2. Listen to partner’s problems (terrible headache, homework isn’t done, watch has stopped, etc.). Offer your assistance.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

At its present stage of electronics development, the transistor is as effective as a vacuum tube, both of which can amplify to an upper limit of about 1000 megahertz. Among the advantages of the transistor are its small size and very small power requirements. Therefore, transistors have replaced most vacuum-tube amplifiers in light, portable electronic equipment, such as airborne navigational aids and the control systems of guided missiles, in which weight and size are prime considerations. Commercial applications include very small hearing aids and compact portable radio and television receivers. In addition, transistors have completely replaced vacuum tubes in electronic computers, which require a great many amplifiers.

Transistors are also used in miniaturized diagnostic instruments, such as those used to transmit electrocardiograph, respiratory, and other data from the bodies of astronauts on space flights. Nearly all transmitting equipment used in space-exploration probes employs transistorized circuitry. Transistors also aid in diagnosing diseases. Miniature radio transmitters using transistors can also be implanted in the bodies of animals for ecological studies of feeding habits, patterns of travel, and other factors. A recent commercial application is the transistorized ignition system in automobiles.

During the late 1960s a new electronic technique, the integrated circuit, began to replace the transistor in complex electronic equipment. Although roughly the same size as a transistor, an integrated circuit performs the function of 15 to 20 transistors. A natural development from the integrated circuit in the 1970s has been the production of medium-, large-, and very large-scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI, and VLSI), which have permitted the building of a compact computer, or minicomputer, containing disk storage units and the communication-control systems on the same frame.

The so-called microprocessor, which came into use in the mid-1970s, is a refinement of the LSI. As a result of further miniaturization, a single microprocessor can incorporate the functions of a number of printed-circuit boards and deliver the performance of the central processing unit of a much larger computer in a hand-held, battery-powered microcomputer.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into English using the Infinitive.

1. Повідомляють, що учасники конференції вже прибули.

2. Ми сподіваємось розмістити їх у готелі “Авіатор”.

3. Так трапилось (to happen), що я це чув.

4. Мабуть ми скоро дізнаємось про це.

5. Кажуть, що він дуже розумний.

6. Я сподіваюсь, що ви зробите все вчасно.

7. Це ви маєте вирішувати.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Draw simple amplifying circuit on either transistor or vacuum tube and explain its action.

Exercise 2. Skim during 5-7 minutes the text below and answer the questions about it content.

The earliest type of the transistor is the bipolar one invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube. It consists of three layers of doped material, forming two p-n (bipolar) junctions with configurations of p-n-p or n-p-n. One junction is connected to a battery so as to allow current flow (forward bias), and the other junction has a battery connected in the opposite direction (reverse bias). If the current in the forward-biased junction is varied by the addition of a signal, the current in the reverse-biased junction of the transistor will vary accordingly. The principle can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the forward-biased junction causes a large change in current in the reverse-biased junction.

Another type of transistor is the field-effect transistor (FET). Such a transistor operates on the principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a superimposed electric field. So they are voltage rather than current controlled, and the base, collector, and emitter functions of the bipolar junction transistor are replaced by the so-called gate, drain, and source terminals, respectively. The control voltage is applied at right angles to the current to be controlled. In contrast to bipolar transistors the function of the field-effect transistors involves only one type of current carriers (electrons or holes), so sometimes they are considered as unipolar type. Different types of field effect transistors include the junction-gate field effect transistor (JFET), the metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), and the insulated-gate field effect transistor (IGFET). The smallest MOSFET is 1/75,000 as wide as a human hair. The MOSFET has for the most part replaced the bipolar junction transistor in computer memory chips. Usually a memory unit consists of two metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, one N-type and one P-type, integrated on a single silicon chip. Field-effect transistors operate more efficiently than bipolar types, because a large signal can be controlled by a very small amount of energy. These devices have very high speed and extremely low power consumption. They are, however, easily damaged by static electricity.

bias drain field-effect gate right

зміщення стік (рос.: сток) польовий (транзистор) затвор прямий (кут)

oxide source static unipolar to superimpose

оксид джерело (рос.: исток) статичний уніполярний накладатися

1. What types of transistor do you know?

2. When was the earliest type of transistor invented?

3. What are the advantages of the field effect transistors over the bipolar ones?

4. Why field effect transistors are considered as unipolar type?

5. How big are the contemporary transistors?

Exercise 3. Find words in Exercise 2 that have an opposite meaning to:

to destroy multi-polar plural identical reverse-biased

suppressor to exclude similarly emitter to separate

large repulsion dynamic drain with difficulties

Граматичні відомості

Герундій (the Gerund)

Герундій – це форма дієслова з закінченням -ing, яка використовується як іменник. В нашій мові відповідної граматичної форми, проміжної між дієсловом і прикметником, нема, хоча звичайно суттєвих труднощів з перекладом висловів, які містять герундій, не виникає, щонайменше для простих форм:

I am fond of reading. – Я люблю читати (читання).

I remember reading this book. – Я пам’ятаю, що читав цю книгу.

Як й інфінітив, герундій змінюється за часом і має активний та пасивний способи (табл. 11), хоча на практиці всі форми, за винятком Indefinite Active, використовуються надзвичайно рідко.

Таблиця 11

Форми герундія

	Simple	Past
Active	informing	having informed
Passive	being informed	having been informed

He likes being invitedby his friends. –Він любить, коли його запрошують друзі.

У деяких випадках замість пасивного стану використовується активний:

The book is worth reading. – Книгу варто прочитати.

Декілька прикладів використання герундія в технічних текстах:

Recognizing plaintext may or may not be easy. – Розпізнавання нешифрованих текстів може бути як простим, так і складним.

We start out by enciphering the data in the first block. – Ми починаємо, шифруючи дані в першому блоці.

The advantage is the ability to cipher individual characters, instead of requiring accumulation into a block before processing. – Перевагою цього є можливість шифрування окремих символів замість того, щоб вимагати їх накопичення у вигляді блоку перед обробленням.

Conception can be proven by disclosure to others, preferably in documents, which can be signed and dated after being read and understood. – Концепція може бути підтверджена шляхом публікації, переважно в документах, які можуть бути підписані і датовані після того, як їх прочитають і зрозуміють.

Поряд з позитивною, існує також заперечна форма герундія, яка утворюється за допомогою частки not:

We discussed about not goingto the conference.

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences explaining the functions of the Gerund.

1. In this case the ciphertext needs deciphering before transmittance to the customer.

2. Another problem, however, is how to prevent the radio-wave emissions from computers and printers from being picked up by electronic listening equipment.

3. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is responsible for making sure the entire message is received in the correct format.

4. Unlike Babbage’s idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s method used cards to store data information.

5. On finding that the engine is working in irregular rate the pilot must take steps for emergency landing.

6. You will never speak good English without learning grammar.

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences.

1. Flares have the advantage of being under control of the pilot all the tame.

2. Combinatorics is often related to counting the subsets of finite sets.

3. For the Comet 4.3.5 kVA variable-frequency supply is available from the alternator output for demisting and deicing the wind screens, in addition to the 350-amp D. C. supply.

4. Be careful in performing the instruction.

5. Customers insisted on the software being supplied with adequate support.

6. Before leaving the firewall messages can be transformed into compressed representation.

7. This offer is made subject to receiving your confirmation within ten days.

Комунікативна практика

Обговорення думок, погодження та заперечення

Listen to conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.

A: Well, if you ask me, there’s too much trouble with getting information via Internet. Spam and viruses are everywhere!

B: Oh, I’m not sure if I agree with you. It’s not too bad. You can filter out spam with special software. And there are a lot of excellent antivirus programs nowadays.

C: I think you’re partly right, but still I spend too much time and money on things like that. As for me I’d like our state toughened up anti-hackers laws.

A: You know, that’s exactly what I think. We need stronger laws and stronger responsibility.

B: Don’t make me laugh! Internet is a worldwide web. How our government can force foreign hackers to be more peaceful and law-abiding?

C: Don’t you think that we have quite enough of our own hackers. Anyway, you know as they say: “A good beginning is a half the battle.”

У наведеному діалозі подані зразки стандартних фраз під час розмови, що передують згоді та запереченню. Ще декілька прикладів:

Згода:

I couldn’t agree more.

That’s a good point.

That’s just what I was thinking.

Незгода:

That’s quite true, but…

Well, you have a point there, but…

Maybe, but…

Якщо ви близько знайомі зі співрозмовником, можливі інші вислови, особливо коли це стосується заперечень:

Are you kidding? (No kidding!)

Come off it!

I know that’s not true.

Exercise. Discuss with your classmates some moot questions. Try to express as many points of view as possible. Here is a list of possible items:

Hardware could be damage by computer viruses.

Computers will destroy human civilization.

Humans are not alone in Universe.

Attending of classes is a waste of time.

Cloning must be banned.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 125-126 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Change sentences using Gerund. Add preposition if need be.

Example: When I received a message, I prepared an answer at once. = After receiving a message I prepared an answer at once.

1. I remember that I have red this paper.

2. While he was writing a new program, he made a few mistakes.

3. After he tried a lot of passwords, he finally found the right one.

4. You can improve your skills in grammar if you make more exercises.

5. After entering the room he said hello and shook hands.

Exercise 3. Translate into English using the word ‘most’.

1. Стаття в останньому номері журналу дуже цікава.

2. Це надзвичайно цікава стаття.

3. Це найцікавіша стаття останнього номера журналу.

4. Більша частина статей в цьому номері журналу написана учасниками конференції.

5. Більшість з нас думає так (think so).

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

What types of transistors do you know? How different are they?

Why metal-oxide transistors are used in contemporary memory microchips?

What are the names of control elements in field-effect transistors?

Why field-effect transistors are more economical in comparison with bipolar transistors?

Is there any limit to miniaturization of microchip?

Exercise 2. Work in pairs or in small groups. First student will propose some nouns concerning the topic “transistors and integrated circuits”. His/her partner has to give adjectives fitted them.

Example: transistor - bipolar, point-contact, junction, field-effect, metal-oxide, unipolar, miniature, compact, thermo-stable, powerful, effective, etc.

Граматичні відомості

Герундій або інфінітив – що обрати?

Функції інфінітива і герундія часто близькі і навіть збігаються:

It began to rain. = It began raining.

I started to work. = I started working.

Після деяких дієслів звичайно використовують чи герундій чи інфінітив. Наприклад, за дієсловом to plan (планувати) слідує інфінітив:

I plan to pass the test.

За деякими дієсловами спочатку слідує іменник чи займенник, а потім інфінітив:

I told him to join us.

За такими дієсловами, як to avoid (запобігати) звичайно слідує не інфінітив, а герундій:

He avoided looking at me.

В табл. 12 наведені деякі дієслова, що часто використовуються, а також дієслівні форми, що рекомендуються після них.

Таблиця 12

Дієслова, які використовуються з інфінітивом і герундієм

Verb + infinitive	Verb + pro(noun) + infinitive	Verb + gerund	Verb + infinitive/ gerund
agree (to) appear ask decide hope intend mean need offer plan promise pretend refuse seem want would like	advice (someone to) allow ask expect force invite need order permit require remind tell want warn would like	avoid consider delay discuss enjoy finish go* have* quit mention mind keep postpone stop*** suggest	begin can’t stand continue hate like love prefer start forget** regret** remember** try**

*Вислови, в яких використовуються ці дієслова з наступним герундієм часто є ідіомами, наприклад, to go fishing – рибалити;

**Значення висловів під час використання цих дієслів з інфінітивом і герундієм дещо різняться:

forget + inf. – забути про обов’язки, + gerund – про минуле;

regret + inf. – жалкувати про сказане, + gerund – про минуле;

remember + inf. – пам’ятати про обов’язок, + gerund – про минуле;

try + inf. – пробувати, + gerund – випробовувати.

***stop + gerund – припинити щось робити; stop + infinitive – зупинитись, аби щось зробити.

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the Infinitive or Gerund form of the verb in parenthesis.

1. Students played the make-believe game at the last lesson. Peter pretended (be) an expert in electronics, and the rest pretended (be) beginners asking the questions.

2. Our classmates plan (go, fish) this weekend.

3. Peter would like (attend) next student conference in Kharkiv.

4. She can’t stand (sit) at the desk all day.

5. Why don’t you stop (read) this? I don’t believe a word of it.

6. Let’s stop (drink) something. I’m thirsty.

7. John has bought a new computer. He appears (have) a lot of money.

Exercise 2. Employ the words from the Chart 9 in sentences of your own. Use Gerund or Infinitive.

Exercise 3. Translate sentences paying attention to the differences in meaning of Gerund and Infinitive forms.

1. My phone is out of order. It needs repairing.

2. I can’t read the disk. The drive needs cleaning.

3. I failed the test. I need to take more exercises.

4. Can anyone help me move this piano? I can’t do it myself.

5. Be serious! I can’t help laughing!

6. He remembered meeting her at a party once.

7. Did you remember to lock the back door?

8. I hope Nick remembers to buy something to eat and drink.

9. They do try to communicate with us, and they expect us to understand.

10. “My cactus is dying.” – “Have you tried putting it in a sunnier room?”

Комунікативна практика

Поради з використанням звороту “had better…”

У мовленні для порад дуже широко використовується сполучення had better (скорочена форма ‘d better).

I think you'd better ask Peter first. – Вважаю, що ти мав би спочатку спитати у Петра.

You had betternot tell him. –Краще б ти йому це не казав.

Інколи у мовленні better ставлять на перше місце, у цьому випадку had зникає, але загальний зміст фрази не змінюється:

Betterjust check they are okay. – Слід спочатку переконатись, що з ними все гаразд.

Порада може даватися і собі:

I'd better go and get ready. – Мені краще піти та підготуватись.

Майте на увазі, що у певних ситуаціях “поради” можуть сприйматися як прямі погрози:

You'd better keep your mouth shut about this. – Раджу тобі тримати язика за зубами.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text into Ukrainian (Russian).

During the late 1960s a new electronic technique, the integrated circuit, began to replace the transistor in complex electronic equipment. Although roughly the same size as a transistor, an integrated circuit performs the function of 15 to 20 transistors. A natural development from the integrated circuit in the 1970s has been the production of medium-, large-, and very large-scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI, and VLSI), which have permitted the building of a compact computer, or minicomputer, containing disk storage units and the communication-control systems on the same frame.

The so-called microprocessor, which came into use in the mid-1970s, is a refinement of the LSI. As a result of further miniaturization, a single microprocessor can incorporate the functions of a number of printed-circuit boards and deliver the performance of the central processing unit of a much larger computer in a hand-held, battery-powered microcomputer.

Most integrated circuits are small pieces, or “chips,” of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4 sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated. Photolithography enables the designer to create tens of thousands of transistors on a single chip by proper placement of the many n-type and p-type regions. These are interconnected with very small conducting paths during fabrication to produce complex special-purpose circuits. Such integrated circuits are called monolithic because they are fabricated on a single crystal of silicon. Chips require much less space and power and are cheaper to manufacture than an equivalent circuit built by employing individual transistors.

Building a chip typically requires several hundred manufacturing steps that take weeks to complete. Each step must be executed perfectly if the chip is to work. The conditions are demanding. For example, because a speck of dust can ruin a chip, the manufacturing has to be done in a “clean room” containing less than one submicron particle of dust per cubic foot of air (in contrast, the average living room has between 100,000 and one million particles per cubic foot of air). Much of the equipment needed for making chips embodies the highest of high technology, with the result that chip factories—which cost between $1 billion and $2 billion for a state-of-the-art facility—are among the costliest of manufacturing plants.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into English using Gerund.

Менделєєв зробив великий внесок в науку (to make fundamental contribution), відкривши закон періодичності (the Law of Periodicity).

Я хочу розпочати з демонстрації декількох таблиць.

Нам пощастило досягнути успіху завдяки вдосконаленню (to improve) апаратури.

Дозвольте мені закінчити, продемонструвавши вам низку слайдів, на яких наведені згадані зразки.

Exercise 3. Complete sentences using either the Infinitive or the Gerund. In some cases both forms are possible.

1. You should avoid…

2. We invited …

3. They like…

4. I could continue…

5. He has begun…

6. He started…

7. Thank you for…

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Listen to the text and answer the questions.

The first operation while producing the chip is the design. When tens of millions of transistors are to be built on a square of silicon about the size of a child’s fingernail, the placing and interconnections of the transistors must be meticulously worked out. Because of the complexity of today’s chips, the design work is done by computer, although engineers often print out an enlarged diagram of a chip’s structure to examine it in detail.

The base material for building an integrated circuit is a silicon crystal. To make a silicon crystal, raw silicon obtained from quartz rock is treated with chemicals that remove contaminants until what remains is almost 100 percent silicon. This purified silicon is melted and then formed into cylindrical single crystals called ingots. The ingots are sliced into wafers about 0.725 millimeter thick. In a step called planarization they are polished with a slurry until they have a flawless, mirror-smooth surface.

Making the transistors and their interconnections entails several different basic steps that are repeated many times. The most complex chips made today consist of 20 or more layers and may require several hundred separate processing steps to build them up one by one.

The first layer is silicon dioxide, an insulator. It is created by putting the wafers into a diffusion furnace – essentially an oven at high temperature where a thin layer of oxide is grown on the wafer surface.

Removed from the furnace, the wafer is ready for its first patterning, or photolithographic, step. A coating of a fairly viscous polymeric liquid called photoresist, which becomes soluble when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, is applied to the surface. A spigot deposits a precise amount of photoresist on the wafer surface. Then the wafer is spun so that centrifugal force spreads the liquid over the surface at an even thickness. This operation takes place on every layer that is modified by a photolithographic procedure called masking.

A mask is the device through which ultraviolet light shines to define the circuit pattern on each layer of a chip. The mask image is transferred to the wafer using a computer-controlled machine known as a stepper. It has a sophisticated lens system with a resolution as small as 0.25 micron. Ultraviolet light from an arc lamp or a laser shines through the clear spaces of the mask’s intricate pattern onto the photoresist layer of a single chip. The stepper table then moves the wafer the precise distance required to position another chip under the light. On each chip, the parts of the photoresist layer that were struck by the light become soluble and can be developed, much like photographic film, using organic solvents.

1. How many transistors may be squeezed onto computer chip?

2. What is the base of microchip?

3. What are the main stages of microchip production?

4. Why is ultraviolet, but not visible light used during treating the surface?

5. Are there any limits of size of electronic components on the surface of semiconducting single crystal?

6. Why must the single crystal of semiconductor be extremely pure?

Граматичні відомості

Дієприкметник (the Participle)

Дієприкметник використовується для характеристики іменників (функція прикметника, adjective) чи дієслів (функція прислівника, adverb), а також зв’язування простих речень в складні.

В таблиці 13 наведені типові форми дієприкметників, які можуть бути активними та пасивними, змінюються за часом.

Таблиця 13

Форми дієприкметників

	Active	Passive
Present	discussing	being discussed
Past	–	discussed
Perfect	having discussed	having been discussed

Слід вказати, що наведені в таблиці назви часів дієприкметників в деякій мірі умовні. Так, наприклад, дієприкметник Present Participle може характеризувати дію як в теперішньому часі, так і в минулому і майбутньому:

Brattain and Bardeen, applying this method to germanium, were able to achieve an accuracy of about one millivolt. – Браттайн і Бардин, які використали цей метод для германію, змогли отримати точність біля одного мілівольту. – Дія, яка виражена діє­прикметником, визначається сполученням were able, тобто належить до минулого.

When the signal comes, the position of the vehicle passing at this moment by the inner beacon will be far away from the starting point. – Коли сигнал прийде, положення транспортного засобу, який в цей момент проходитиме вздовж внутрішнього маяку, буде далеко від початкової точки. – Майбутнє визначається сполученням will be.

У вказаних випадках Participle I (applying, passing) використовується незалежно від часу основного дієслова-присудка (to be), при цьому мається на увазі, що дія відбувається одночасно з головним дієсловом.

В той же час ця форма може виражати дію в момент мовлення незалежно від часової форми присудка:

The letter lyingon the desk was received yesterday.

Переклад дієприкметників в функції прикметника як правило не викликає труднощів: runningcar,brokencup,discussingproblem, problembeing discussed, questionhaving been asked.

Дієприкметники теперішнього часу бувають як активними, так і пасивними:

This function is reversible, as well as being balanced on both inputs. – Ця функція є оберненою, а також балансується з обох входів.

Перфектні форми дієприкметника використовуються досить рідко і підкреслюють закінчений характер дії, факт його здійснення до іншої дії:

Having thrown the ball into the water, the boy could not get it back. – Кинувши м’яч в воду, хлопчик не міг його дістати.

Дієприкметники часто утворюють самостійні сполучення:

Following a suggestion by Geballe that the incorporation of thermal gradient might yield interesting information, Zemel and Greene measured the thermoelectric power of intrinsic germanium. – Слідуючи за припущенням Гебалле, що реєстрація термічного градієнта може надати цікаву інформацію, Земель і Грін виміряли термоелектричну емісію чистого германію. - У цьому випадку дія following належить до підмета Zemel and Greene.

Having involved a series of more or less novel instruments, it remains to dispose them on a panel, in order that they may be used with maximum use and value. – Отримавши низку більш-менш нових інструментів, залишається розмістити їх на панелі, щоб використати з максимальною користю і навантаженням.

Дещо складніше для перекладу сполучення, де дієприкметник має власний присудок, не зв’язаний з присудком головного речення. У цьому випадку звичайно використовують сполучники типу оскільки, тому що:

The surface potential being lower than the activation barrier, the electrons were not able enter the zone. – Оскільки поверхневий потенціал був нижче бар’єра активації, електрони не змогли увійти в зону.

Exercise 1. Use all the of the Participle with the following verbs:

to stop, to cut, to forget, to begin, to study, to open, to play, to write, to give, can.

Exercise 2. Translate from Ukrainian into English.

1. Над ним сміялися

2. Її слухали неуважно.

3. Нам прочитають цю лекцію до того, як він поїде з Києва.

4. Його щойно відпустили. (to release)

5. Зараз нам читають новий курс.

6. Коли він прийшов, нам показували новий фільм.

Exercise 3. Translate the sentences explaining the functions of the Participle and the Gerund.

1. In the U.S., publication also apparently sets a 1-year clock running for an application to be filled by anyone who does have such proof.

2. The classic stream cipher is very simple, consisting of a keyed random number generator, which produces a random-like confusion sequence, or running key.

3. In a digital system we create a delay by simply counting clock cycles.

4. Integer is an element in the set consisting of counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, ..., their negatives: -1, -2, -3, ..., and zero.

5. A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature.

6. All books taken from the library must be returned in due course.

7. Having been sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

8. Being sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

9. Sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

Комунікативна практика

Вибачення

Під час розмови іноді виникає потреба вибачитись перед співбесідником. Для цього існує багато висловів, вибір яких залежить від конкретної ситуації. Декілька прикладів:

Sorry. I’m sorry. I’m very (awfully, extremely) sorry. I can’t tell you how sorry I am.

I feel sorry for …

Excuse me, I didn’t realize …

I hope you can excuse my …

Could I be excused from (…) today?

I just don’t know what to say …

Pardon me.

Well, pardon me for breathing (ironic). = Excuse me for living!

Forgive me, but …

На вибачення можна відповісти таким чином:

Oh, everything is OK (all right).

Don’t worry about that.

Oh, newer mind …

It doesn’t matter …

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and then answer the questions.

A: I’m sorry, I’m late. You know how the rush hour traffic is.

B: Well, I don’t know how to tell you, but I completely forgot about a book I promised you to bring. I was so busy last night …

A: Oh, don’t worry about that. You can bring it next time. But unfortunately I’ve got a real problem. Do you remember a calculator you lent me last month?

B: Yes.

A: I’m awfully sorry, but it seems to me that I’ve lost it. I’m trying to find it. Anyway I’ll buy you a new one.

B: Oh, that’s OK. That’s life. By the way it didn’t work properly sometimes. So it doesn’t really matter.

Who are the speakers?

Where are they?

How serious are the problems discussed?

What time is it now?

Why was one of the speakers late?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

Once the photoresist is patterned, the wafer is ready for etching. During this step, photoresist remaining on the surface protects parts of the underlying layer from being removed by the acids or reactive gases used to etch the pattern on the surface of the wafer. After etching is complete, the protective layer of photoresist is removed to reveal electrically conducting or electrically insulating segments in the pattern determined by the mask.

Further masking and etching steps deposit patterns of additional materials on the chip. On each layer of material, masking and etching create a unique pattern of conducting and nonconducting areas. Together these patterns aligned on top of one another form the chip’s circuitry in a three-dimensional structure. But the circuitry needs fine-tuning to work properly. The tuning is provided by doping.

Doping deliberately adds chemical impurities, such as boron or arsenic, to parts of the silicon wafer to alter the type of conductivity in each doped area. Machines called ion implanters are often used to inject these impurities into the chip.

The material at the base of the chip is p-type silicon. One of the etching steps in the manufacture of a chip removes parts of the polysilicon and silicon dioxide layers put on the pure silicon base earlier, thus laying bare two strips of p-type silicon. Separating them is a strip that still bears its layer of conducting polysilicon; it is the transistor’s “gate.” The doping material now applied to the two strips of p-type silicon transforms them into n-type silicon. A positive charge applied to the gate attracts electrons below the gate in the transistor’s silicon base. These electrons create a channel between one n-type strip (the source) and the other (the drain). If a positive voltage is applied to the drain, current will flow from source to drain. In this mode, the transistor is “on.” A negative charge at the gate depletes the channel of electrons, thereby preventing the flow of current between source and drain. Now the transistor is “off.” It is by means of switching on and off that a transistor represents the arrays of 1 and 0 that constitute the binary code, the language of computers.

Done many times in many layers, these operations provide the chip with its multitude of transistors. The final step is interconnecting the transistors so they form an integrated circuit. This begins with further masking and etching operations that open a thin layer of electrical contacts between layers of the chip. Then aluminum is deposited and patterned using photolithography to create a form of wiring that links all the chip’s transistors.

This step completes the processing of the wafer. Now the individual chips are tested to ensure that all their electrical connections work using tiny electrical probes.

Exercise 2. Make notes about main advantages of contemporary electronics that seem to be the most important for world technical development and progress. What do you think about possible achievements in this field in the future? Prepare short oral reports (around 5 minutes) for these topics.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to transistors and integrated circuits: their functions, structure, manufacture as well as numerous applications of electronics in modern technologies.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Нижче наведені типові приклади завдань, що можуть бути використані під час письмового тесту.

Exercise 1. Translate into English using modal verbs or their equivalents.

1. Ми маємо поспішити, щоб не запізнитись на лекцію.

2. Він, мабуть, дуже розчарований результатом експерименту.

3. Ми змогли встановити все обладнання вчасно.

4. Тобі слід було краще підготуватись до виступу на вчорашньому семінарі.

5. Я зараз дам вам конспект, щоб ви змогли вчасно підготувати завдання.

6. Не можу повірити, що це дійсно трапилось.

7. Чи треба було нам підтримувати напругу постійною?

8. Ти, мабуть, жартуєш!

9. Тут не можна працювати без гумових рукавиць.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences using either Infinitive or Gerund.

1. Thank you for (attend) our training.

2. We expect the message (arrive) soon.

3. I asked him (call) me next week.

4. There is no hope of our (complete) the task in time.

5. Instead of (attend) the meeting himself he sent his assistant.

6. I’d like (not, say) that.

7. You must (remember) this.

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences with be going to or will, can, may, shall.

1. Could someone help me? – I _________ do it.

2. What are your plans for the next month? – I _____________ to the conference in Odessa.

3. I don’t understand how to do it. – Oh, do you? I ________ explain you.

4. What computer would you like to bye – laptop or smartphone? – I _________ bye a laptop.

5. It looks like it's __________ rain.

6. You know Peter __________ be trouble for Ann from the moment they meet at a party.

7. Mr. Smith _________ (probably arrive) at 6.

8. I’ve a terrible headache, I think I ___________ be sick.

Exercise 4. Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets in appropriate form (finite or non-finite). Add auxiliary verb if necessary.

1. You (to read) that article yet? – No, I only just (to begin) it.

2. We (to walk) to the university when it (to begin) (to rain).

3. As they (to warn) that the meeting was called off, they turned back.

4. They had much difficulties in (to find) the solution.

5. It’s time. Let me (to start).

6. The letter (to type) by the secretary when I came.

7. By the time he is twenty five he (to become) a well-known programmer.

Exercise 5. Translate into English using non-finite form of the verb (Gerund, Infinitive or Participle).

1. Кажуть, що він складає останній екзамен завтра.

2. Здається, хтось прийшов.

3. Я думаю надіслати йому листа.

4. Чи варто перекладати цю статтю?

5. Ми отримали позитивну рецензію на нашу статтю підписану професором Джексоном.

6. Він залишив багато помилок у тексті завдяки тому, що був неуважним.

7. Він відповідає за те, щоб робота над проектом була закінчена вчасно.

Exercise 6. Write all possible forms of participles for the following verbs:

to put, to begin, to install, to read, to set, to forgive, to stay.

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks using the terms of module 3.

1. The purified silicon is melted and then formed into cylindrical single _________ called ingots.

2. Most integrated ________ are small pieces, or “_______,” of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4 sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated.

3. The earliest type of the ________ is the bipolar one invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum ________.

4. The capacity of the triode to amplify depends on the small changes in the voltage between the grid and the ________ causing large changes in the number of _________ reaching the anode.

5. When atoms of trivalent boron are ________ for some of the silicon atoms, each captures one electron from a neighboring silicon atom, leaving an empty space, or ________.

6. Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely replaced by __________, which are cheaper, smaller, and more _________.

Exercise 8. Explain the terms below with other words.

1. Vacuum tube.

2. Integrated circuit.

3. Doping.

4. Emitter.

5. Cathode.

6. Grid

7. Gate.

Module 4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text. Find out the meaning of the words you don’t understand.

The most common type of computer nowadays is personal computer (PC). This term refers to any independent (stand-alone) computer fully equipped with its own central processing unit, memory, software, storage, and other utilities which make it useful for any individual to successfully accomplish tasks. The term ‘personal computer’ became popular in 1981 after IBM announced a computer whose model name was ‘IBM Personal Computer’. This term is now used generically, and very loosely.

Apart of personal computers, there are computers called ‘neurocomputers’ (the most powerful of computers), ‘supercomputers’, ‘mainframes’ (an industry term for a large computer - the main computer built into a frame), ‘superminicomputers’, ‘minicomputers’, ‘microcomputers.’ Within each type are several divisions. For example, within the microcomputer range are personal computer systems, desktop computers, portable computers, laptops, and notebook computers.

Personal computers are complete business tools. They were introduced to help users break away from the mainframe and minicomputer applications which did not give users any autonomy. Local area networking and then Internet have brought back the cohesion, but still allow users independence and flexibility when choosing applications.

Modern industrial computers being produced since 1971 are considered as fourth generation computers. Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces single central processing unit design with a system controlling the power of many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow. Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient's needs. It will take several more years of development before expert systems are in widespread use.

advance application attribute desktop flexibility generation laptop mainframe

вдосконалення додаток, застосування атрибут, характерна риса настільний, робочий гнучкість покоління, генерація мініатюрний (наколінний) комп’ютер великий стаціонарний комп’ютер, інколи сервер

neurocomputer networking superconductor tool user widespread to apply to equip

нейрокомп’ютер (найбільш доско- налий комп’ютер, як мозок людини) робота в мережі надпровідник засіб, інструмент користувач поширений, розповсюджений застосовувати обладнувати

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What modern types of computers do you know?

2. What companies first proposed personal computers?

3. What type of computer is the most versatile? Ground your point of view.

4. What are the ways of development of modern computers?

5. What are the applications of modern industrial computers?

6. What do you think can be considered as the first computer?

7. Who and when invented the first electronic computer?

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences.

1. PC is …

2. Parallel processing allows …

3. Notebook and laptop are …

4. Many people work at home and communicate with fellow workers via their …

5. … is smaller, less expensive, and easier to use than other classes of computers, such as supercomputers, mainframe computers, and workstations.

6. Computers today …

Граматичні відомості

Способи дієслів (Moods of the verb)

Особові форми дієслів англійської мови, як і в українській мові, можуть змінюватись за способами. Форми дійсного способу, що були розглянуті у попередніх розділах, відносяться до реальних фактів та подій:

He livesin Kyiv. – Imadea mistake. – I’ll write it down. (I’m going to write it down.)

Дієслова у формі умовного способу описують події або стани, які розглядаються не як реальний факт, але щось імовірне, бажане, ін. В українській мові смислове дієслово в умовному способі майже завжди супроводжується часткою “б” (“би”): Я хотів би це зробити. У сучасній англійській мові для висловлення умовного способу зазвичай використовуються модальні дієслова should, would, might (may) з наступним інфінітивом:

You shouldn’t do it. – Ви не мали б цього робити.

I could do it tomorrow. – Я міг би зробити це завтра.

Якщо дієслово використовується в умовному способі самостійно, слід враховувати деякі особливості: дієслово to be у теперішньому часі має форму be, а в минулому were незалежно від особи та числа: I be, you be, he be, they be; I were, she were, they were. Зазвичай це притаманне складнопідрядним реченням, у першу чергу умовним.

Наприклад:

I wish I were with you! – Хотів би я бути з вами!

It is necessary that he behere at six. –Необхідно, щоб він був тут о шостій годині.

Всі інші дієслова в умовному способі за формою збігаються з формами дійсного способу, за винятком того, що у форми третьої особи у теперішньому часі немає закінчення -s:

It is desirable that he repairthe computer. –Бажано, щоб він полагодив комп’ютер.

Ще одна особливість умовного способу – форма Present умовного способу використовується незалежно від часу попереднього дієслова:

I suggested that she seethe doctor. –Я радив, щоб вона відвідала лікаря.

Форми наказового способу висловлюють спонукання до дії – пораду, наказ, прохання. Стверджувальна форма наказового способу збігається з інфінітивом без частки to:

Behere at once! –Негайно будь тут!

У заперечній формі додається допоміжне слово do та частка not:

Don’t do it. – Не робить цього.

Якщо звертаються до першої або третьої особи, часто використовують дієслово let:

Letus (let’s)go. –Підемо.

Lethimcomeback. –Нехай він повертається.

Don’tlethimgothere. –Нехай він не іде туди.

У запитаннях звичайно використовуються модальні дієслова:

Should he come? – Чи треба йому приходити? – Let him. –Нехай іде.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Ми наполягаємо (insist), щоб користувач дотримувався(follow) всіх інструкцій.

2. Він розповідав про справу так, нібито був справжнім фахівцем у справі.

3. Чи не могли б ви сказати, котра зараз година?

4. Передайте йому, що ми могли би погодитись з його вимогами.

5. Лікар наполягає, щоб він лишався у ліжку декілька днів.

6. Не кажіть так!

7. Дозвольте мені розпочати.

8. Важливо, щоб їй казали правду.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences. Sometimes more than one completion is possible.

1. It is essential that he ___________ you tomorrow.

2. The students requested that the module test ________, because they were not ready.

3. Peter demanded that I ________ him the truth.

4. The teacher insists that we (not) __________ the dictionary.

5. It is important that everyone __________ in time.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання інформації: питання та відповіді

Хід розмови значною мірою залежить від теми та характеру питань, що ви збираєтесь поставити. Звичайно, особа, що ставить питання, контролює загальний настрій та темп розмови. Існують стандартні форми питань, що залежать від віку, статі, положення в суспільстві вашого співрозмовника, від того як добре ви знайомі. Найбільш обережно і ввічливо слід ставити питання незнайомцям. Вважається більш ввічливим не ставити прямих запитань. Особли­во уважним слід бути до особистих питань – про сімейний стан, роботу, рівень заробітної плати, політичні погляди. Більш ввічли­вим вважається розпочати питання з модальних дієслів у минулому часі: would, could. Нижче наведені деякі стандартні вислови, що використовуються на початку розмови.

I was wondering if you could help me. I’d like to know...

I wonder if you could tell me...

Would you mind telling me…

Excuse me, do you know...

I hope you don’t mind my asking, but I’d like to know...

Something else I’d like to know is...

Є декілька нескладних фраз, єдиною метою яких є уповільнення темпу розмови, отримання часу для роздумів та усвідомлення раніш отриманих фактів. Наприклад:

Well, let me see. . .

Well now. . .

Oh, let me think for a minute. . .

I’m not sure; I’ll have to check. . .

You know, I really don’t remember…

That’s a very interesting question.

З іншого боку, подібні фрази можуть застосовуватись у випадках, коли ви бажаєте з будь-яких причин уникнути відповіді на питання:

I’m not really sure.

I can’t answer that one.

I’m sorry, I really don’t know.

I’ve got no idea.

I’d like to help you, but. . .

That’s something I’d rather not talk about just now.

Exercise. Work in pair with your classmate. Ask your partner about his/her:

favorite place in the city, hobbies, friends.

Deal with each topic by asking questions.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 146-147 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Make sentences of your own to illustrate usage of different modal verbs for Subjunctive Mood: should, would and might.

Exercise 3. Translate into English.

1. Нехай вона зробить це сама.

2. Будь ласка, передайте йому листа.

3. Йдемо додому.

4. Не сперечайтеся!

5. Негайно викликайте пожежників!

6. Допоможіть!

7. Не хвилюйтесь, все гаразд.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What type of computer is the smallest?

2. What is main part of any digital computer?

3. How did the number of computers increase during last 50 years?

4. What are today’s applications of computers?

5. How big is modern CPU?

6. What kind of display have contemporary miniature computers?

Exercise 2. First try to guess the missing words using the list of the words below. Each of the words in the list is used only once. Then listen and check your guesses.

Currently the term “__________” usually refers to an electronic device that can perform a series of tasks according to a precise set of instructions. The set of __________is called a program, and the tasks may include _________ arithmetic calculations, storing, retrieving, and processing data, controlling another device, or interacting with a person to perform a business function or to play a video _______.

Today’s computers are marvels of__________. Machines that once weighed 30 tons and occupied warehouse-size rooms now may weigh as ________ as 1-2 kilograms and can be carried in a suit pocket or a purse. The “brains” of today’s computers are integrated circuits (ICs), sometimes called ________, or simply chips. These tiny silicon wafers can each contain millions of microscopic __________ components and are designed for many specific operations. Some chips make up a computer’s central processing unit (CPU), which controls the computer’s overall operation; some are math coprocessors that can ________ millions of mathematical operations per second; and others are memory chips that can each store more than 16 million characters of information at one _______.

In 1953 there were only about 100 computers in use in the entire world. Today hundreds of millions of computers form the core of electronic ________, and programmable computers are being used in homes, schools, businesses, government offices, and universities for almost every conceivable purpose.

Computers come in many sizes and _________. Special-purpose, or dedicated, computers are designed to perform specific tasks. Their operations are limited to the programs built into their _________. These computers are the basis for electronic calculators and can be found in thousands of other electronic products, including digital watches (controlling timing, alarms, and displays), cameras (monitoring shutter speeds and aperture settings), and _________ (controlling fuel injection, heating, and air conditioning and monitoring hundreds of electronic sensors).

General-purpose computers, such as personal computers and business computers, are much more versatile because they can ________ new programs. Each new program enables the same computer to perform a __________ set of tasks. For example, one program instructs the computer to be a word processor, another instructs it to manage inventories, and yet another transforms it into a video game.

Although some general-purpose computers are as ______ as pocket radios, the smallest class of fully functional, self-contained computers is the class called ________ computers. These usually consist of a CPU, data-storage devices called disk drives, a liquid-crystal display (_______), and a full-size keyboard – all housed in a single unit small enough to fit into a briefcase.

miniaturization instructions computer game making electronic microchips perform time shapes automobiles microchips small notebook little accept products LCD different
retrieving shutter conceivable aperture	відтворення (подавання) затвор (фотокамери) можливий діафрагма, апертура

Граматичні відомості

Погодження часів (Sequence of Tenses)

Для англійської мови характерна залежність часу дієслова у підрядному реченні від часу дієслова головного речення. Ця залежність підпорядковується так званим правилам погодження часів:

1. Якщо підмет головного речення має теперішній або майбутній час, дієслова у підрядному реченні використовуються у будь-якому часі відповідно до змісту речення, при цьому слід не забувати, що час Present Perfect є теперішнім, хоча і зазвичай відповідає минулому часу української мови:

He says you do it. He says you did it. He says you will do it.

He has said you tell this. He has said you told this. He has said you will tell this.

I’ll think you say that. I’ll think you said that. I’ll think you will say that.

2. Якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу (Past Indefiniteабо Past Continuous), дієслово у підрядному реченні приймає форми:

а) Past Indefinite, Past Continuous або Past Perfect, якщо дія відбувається одночасно з дією головного речення:

He said he watched TV. He said he was watching TV at that moment. He said he has watched TV.

б) Past Perfect,якщо дія підрядного речення передує дії головного речення:

He thought that she had lost her ring.

в) Одну з форм Future in the Past,якщо дія у підрядному реченні колись ще відбуватиметься:

I hoped you would be here.

Як бачимо, часто використання категорії часу дієслів в українській та англійській мовах суттєво відрізняється:

He asked me where I lived. –Він запитав, де я живу.

She said that she had knownPeter for two years. –Вона сказала, що знає Петра два роки.

I was told he was waiting for me. –Мені сказали, що він чекає на мене.

Стосовно модальних дієслів діють такі правила погодження часів: якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу, то у підрядному реченні зазвичай використовують could замість can, might замість may та had to замість must, коли must висловлює необхідність завдяки обставинам:

She said she could do it.

He said he had to send her a message at once.

She said she might watch TV.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Він вже сказав, що збирається поїхати завтра.

2. Я думав, що ти живеш в іншому місті.

3. Мені повідомили, що вони вже повернулись.

4. Мені тоді казали, що все закінчиться дуже швидко.

5. Коли задзвонив телефон, я почув, як хтось стукає в двері.

6. Я був впевнений, що нічого не забув і що вже одержав усі документи.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with verbs in appropriate form.

1. The man sitting next to me asked where I _____ from. I answered that I ______ from Kyiv.

2. I thought that he _________ at the university.

3. I replied that I __________ to the cinema next day.

4. He explained that he ________ for five hours.

5. I could not __________ because she ___________.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання інформації: питання та відповіді

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the conversation. Find out which phrases are used to get and give new information, and which ones for delaying and avoiding answers.

Nick: Hi, Peter!

Peter: Oh hi, Nick!

Nick: So, how’s your study going?

Peter: Fine, I like it a lot. It’s very satisfying to study at the university like ours. Do you know I’ve been studying here for four months already?

Nick: Uh listen, I was wandering if you could help me. Do you happen to know where there is possible to get the latest information about antivirus computer programs?

Peter: That’s a very interesting question. Well, let me see… Oh yeah, you can use a new web cite, if I remember it is something like info_security.com.

Nick: Sorry, but you know that we must type address very carefully to reach the website. Are you sure about spelling?

Peter: Don’t worry, if you use a searching server like google.com, you can’t miss it. By the way, Nick, I hope you don’t mind my asking, but are you going to specialize in computer security?

Nick: Are you kidding? Don’t you remember that my future specialty is sociology? I’m just asking for my girlfriend. She’s having a huge test next week.

Peter: Oh I understand… Is it that tall blonde I saw you with at the last party?

Nick: Well, ah… I really don’t know… I guess you mixed something. As a matter of fact my girl has dark hear. By the way, Peter, as I see you have a new mobile phone. It looks great!

Peter: Thanks. It has built in digital photo camera. Would you like to see last picture?

Nick: Let me see. It’s incredible! Such a clear picture! And what bright colours!

Peter: It has a resolution 2.0 mega pixels.

Nick: I can’t believe it! It’s almost professional level. Hey, listen. This may sound like a dumb question, but how should you focus the lens while taking pictures?

Peter: That’s a good question. This is not a camera for professionals so a focusing as well as exposition is set automatically.

Nick: Could you tell me how difficult to print the pictures?

Peter: Oh it’s easy; you can do it in any of the digital photo shops. And that’s rather inexpensive. Well, I need to run now, so bye!

Nick: See you.

Exercise 2. Work with your classmates. Discuss characteristics of some modern electronic gadgets: mobile phone, digital player, smartphone, etc. Ask questions using the conversation above as a model.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 152-153 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English using modal verbs.

1. Я міг би це зробити завтра, якщо Ви не заперечуєте.

2. Він сказав, що завтра можливо дощитиме.

3. Я думав, що вмію це робити.

4. Він сказав, що в цьому приміщенні заборонено палити.

5. Невже він міг так подумати?

6. Не слід було його слухати.

7. Я вважав, що так буде краще.

Exercise 3. Translate paying special attention to the different meaning of the word ‘appear’ (з’являтися, здаватися, мабуть, можливо, бути явним, видаватися).

The meteors are called Leonids because they appear to come from the direction of the constellation Leo the Lion.

The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible with fifth generation computers. This feat seemed a simple objective at first, but appeared much more difficult when programmers realized that human understanding relies as much on context and meaning as it does on the simple translation of words.

In practice, a patent is rarely the intrusive prohibitive right that it may at first appear to be, because patents are really about money and respect.

The cathode-ray tube is really cone-shaped, and it is one the circular base of this cone that the televised picture appears.

It has been exhilarating to work in effective partnership. Now, for many, this appears to be approaching an end.

Current belief is that the first cities appeared around 3500 BC in the valley of Sumer, where Iraq now stands.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Try to guess the missing words. Then listen and fill in the blanks.

Today’s desktop __________ computers, or PCs, are many times more powerful than the huge, million-dollar business ________ of the 1960s and 1970s. Most PCs can ________ from 150 to 400 million operations per second, and some can even perform more than 500 million. These computers are used not only for household __________ and personal entertainment, but also for most of the automated tasks required by small businesses, including word __________, generating mailing lists, tracking inventory, and calculating accounting _________. The fastest desktop computers are called _________, and they are generally used for scientific, engineering, or advanced business ___________.

Servers are fast computers that have greater data processing _________ than most PCs and workstations and can be used simultaneously by many ________. Often several PCs and workstations are connected to a server via a local area _________ (LAN). The server controls resources that are shared by the people _________ at the PCs and workstations. An example of a shared resource is a large collection of information called a ________.

Mainframes are large, extremely fast, multi-user computers that often contain complex arrays of ___________, each designed to perform a specific function. Because they can handle huge databases, simultaneously accommodate scores of users, and perform complex mathematical operations, they are the mainstay of industry, research, and university computing centers.

The speed and power of __________, the fastest class of computer, are almost beyond human comprehension, and their capabilities are continually being _________. One of the most sophisticated of these machines can theoretically perform 32 billion _________ per second, can store 256 billion characters in its memory, and can do the work of thousands of PCs. Supercomputers attain these speeds through the use of several advanced engineering ________. For example, critical circuitry is supercooled to nearly absolute _______ so that electrons can move at the speed of light, and many processing units are linked in such a way that they can all work on a single problem _________. Because these computers can cost millions of dollars, they are used primarily by government _________ and large research centers.

Computer development is rapidly progressing at both the high and the low ends of the computing spectrum. On the high end, by linking _________ networks of computers and programming them to use a language called Linda, scientists employ a _________ called parallel processing, in which a problem is broken down into smaller subproblems that are then distributed among the networked computers. A goal of this technology is the creation of a machine that could perform a trillion _________ per second, a measure known as a teraflop. At the other end of the spectrum, computer companies are developing small, handheld personal digital assistants (PDAs). For example, a PDA called the Palm Pilot lets _______ use a pen to input handwritten information through a touch-sensitive screen and to send mail and faxes to other computers. Researchers are currently developing microchips called digital signal processors (DSPs) to enable computers to recognize and interpret human _______. This development, which will permit people in all professions to use a computer quickly and easily, promises to lead to a revolution in the way humans communicate and transfer _________.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What type of computers is the most common nowadays?

2. What is the speed of modern computers?

3. What is parallel processing used for?

4. Is any type of a vacuum tube applied in contemporary computers?

5. Which modern technologies are applied to the most powerful computers?

6. What do you think is the most important use of computers today?

7. What type of input devices is more convenient: keyboard or touch-sensitive screen?

Exercise 3. Use these words and their combinations to make sentences:

to supercool, DSP, PDA, programming language, to network, flop, simultaneously, handheld, to interpret, handwritten information.

Граматичні відомості

Погодження форм часу, винятки з правил

Коли дієслово у підрядному реченні означає загальновідомий факт, закон природи, то воно може використовуватись у теперішньому часі незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

The teacher explained us that the earth turnsaround the sun.

У мовленні правило узгодження форм часу також часто не використовується, коли зрозуміло, що дія або стан, висловлені у підрядному реченні, актуальні і в момент розмови:

I heard that she’s going to marry Peter.

He said in the morning that he will passa test tomorrow.

Однак, у вказаних вище випадках звичайно не вважається помилкою і формальне дотримання правил погодження часів:

He explained that the earth turnedaround the sun.

Правила узгодження форм часу не діють у підрядних реченнях означальних, порівняльних та причиннових, у яких дієслова можуть використовуватись у теперішньому або майбутньому часі, навіть якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу:

Nick told me about the computer you are workingwith.

Computers were not as fast as they aretoday.

The data were sent to server which isout of order now.

Ann refused to go to the party because she will be busy tonight.

Модальні дієслова should та ought використовуються незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

He sought that he ought to call his mother.

He said I should learn hard.

Це також стосується і дієслова must, коли воно виражає наказ, пораду, або заборону:

He told us that we mustn’t smoke at the university.

Форма Present умовного способу використовується незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

It was extremely important he followall instructions. –Дуже важливо, щоб він виконував усі інструкції.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Він сказав, що ми не повинні вмикати обладнання, поки не знаємо, як з ним поводитись.

2. Вона казала, що завтра не буде дощу.

3. Науковці розповіли про дослідження, що будуть виконуватись згідно зі спільним планом.

4. Як показали останні експерименти, зниження температури майже не впливає на продуктивність процесу.

5. Вони внесли поправки, щоб результати не були спотворені (to distort).

Exercise 2. Remove the brackets using the verbs in appropriate form.

1. I have heard a lot about the book you (to read) now.

2. She was once cleverer that she (to be) now.

3. It was necessary that we (to receive) all instructions before start.

4. The professor explained that the rule (not/to work) at a temperature above 1000 K.

5. I thought that the weather (to be) better the next day.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання додаткової інформації

Під час бесіди трапляється, що ви не одразу отримуєте вичерпну інформацію щодо питання, яке обговорюється, або не розумієте деякі деталі. Тоді вам потрібно поставити додаткові питання. Нижче наведені деякі типові конструкції, доречні у таких ситуаціях:

Could you tell me some more about …?

Would you mind telling me more about …?

I’d like to know something more about …

Excuse me, I don’t understand how …

I understand, but I was wondering about …

Sorry, but I don’t understand what …

Sorry to keep after you, but where …

Під час розмови враховуйте ступінь знайомства з співбесідником, його вік і т. ін.

Exercise 1. Learn once more conversation on pages 155-156. Find out the questions intended for getting more information.

Exercise 2. Work in pairs or small groups. Pretend that one person is a travel agent and other – a client arranging a holiday trip. Prepare a small conversation between the agent and the client. The client tries to get as much information as possible about the place he’s going to (sights, accommodation, tickets, prices, etc.).

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 158-159 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English.

1. Нам щойно зателефонували і повідомили, що делегація вже прибула.

2. Думаючи, що він вже приїхав, я поїхав до нього.

3. Я сказав, що напишу відгук (reference) після того, як повернусь із відпустки.

4. Я чув цю історію, яку зараз збираюсь вам розповісти, декілька років тому.

5. Він сказав, що нам не слід очікувати покращення ситуації на ринку.

6. Я відчував, що моя розповідь цікавить його.

Exercise 3. Substitute the words in italics by one of the words from the box.

to perform, guidance, in addition to, activity, to appoint, modern, to be educated, to contain

They work under the direction of a prominent scientist.

The experiments were carried on successfully.

The date of the congress was settled several months ago.

He is well taught.

Our institute has got some new equipment as well as soundproof chamber.

The equipment appeared to be up-to-date.

He was a great peace-fighter and his deeds are well known.

There are many useful data in this paper.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations to make sentences of your own:

to process, server, networking, link, programmer, System Administrator, function, LAN, access, Internet, password, computer virus, diskette, hard drive.

Exercise 2. Work in small groups. Participants take turns in offering some term concerning the topic “Types of computers”. The rest of the group has to write down as many as possible words which go with that term.

Example: notebook – portable, flat, LCD, built in modem, trackball, Toshiba, laptop, etc.

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Most of modern PCs can perform thousands arithmetic operations per second.

2. Researchers are currently developing microchips to enable computers to recognize and interpret human speech.

3. Common mainframe has one, sometimes 2 CPU.

4. Some general-purpose computers are as small as pocket radios.

5. Most sophisticated modern computers use the power of animal’s brains.

6. Modern industrial computers are considered as sixth generation computers.

Граматичні відомості

Прислівник (The Adverb)

Англійське ім’я прислівника (від add – додавати та verb – дієслово) вдало характеризує його функції – він указує на ознаки дії або на обставини, за яких ця дія відбувається. Прислівник відповідає на питання “як?”, “коли?” і “де?”.

Розрізняють такі основні види прислівників:

а) Часу: when (коли), now (зараз), today (сьогодні), lately (нещодавно), since (з тих пір), often (часто), seldom (рідко) та інші.

The work has been alreadyfinished.

I’ve neverseen himsince.

б) Місця: here (тут), above (над), somewhere (де-небудь), nowhere (ніде) та інші.

He is here.

Where are you going to? – Nowhere.

в) Міри та ступеня: much (багато), little (мало), too (занадто), enough (досить), almost (майже), so(так) та інші. Деякі з них (very, too, so та ін.) використовуються не самостійно, а разом з іншими прислівниками та прикметниками.

He reads very much.Howlate it is! She’salmostfinished her job. He’sverysmart.

г) Способу дії: well (добре), fast (швидко), easily легко), quickly (швидко)та інші.

He was driving too fast.

До прислівників також належать такі питальні слова, як when, where, why:

Whydo you think so?

Деякі з прислівників, наприклад, so, however, yet, how, використовуються для поєднання частин складного речення:

I want to know howhe does it.

Часто вони фактично виконують роль сполучника:

I was sick, soI called a doctor.

He always comes beforeI do.

Значна кількість прислівників утворюється від прикметників додаванням суфікса -ly:

easy – easily, correspondent – correspondently, brave – bravely.

При цьому слід мати на увазі, що деякі прислівники просто збігаються за формою з прийменниками, наприклад fast, long:

fasttrain – прикметник, to workfast –прислівник.

Деякі з прислівників мають дві форми, як з -ly, так і без цього суфікса. Ці форми, однак, звичайно різняться значенням:

I work hard. – Я працюю наполегливо.

There was hardly any traffic. – Руху майже не було.

Як і прикметники, деякі з прислівників мають ступені порів­няння. В таблиці 14 наведені приклади. Короткі слова змінюються, як і прикметники, додаванням суфіксів -er та -est, більш довгі прислівники та такі, що походять від прикметників додаванням закінчення -ly, утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою слів more та most. Як і у випадку прикметників, деякі прислівники змінюються не за правилами (в таблиці виділені).

Таблиця 14

Ступені порівняння прислівників

Прислівник	Вищий ступінь порівняння	Найвищий ступінь порівняння
fast late early often clearly correctly well much badly little far	faster later earlier more often more clearly more correctly better more worse less farther (further)	fastest - (only for adjective) earliest most often most clearly most correctly best most worst least farthest (furthest)

На відміну від прикметників артикль the перед прислівником у найвищому ступені порівняння звичайно не використовується:

Peter works best in the morning. Which of them works (the) best?

Exercise 1. Remove brackets, choosing the correct form of the word, add appropriate ending (-ly) if it is required.

1. I like this device (well) than that.

2. You should have told me this (early).

3. The program was (perfect) done.

4. The guests seem to be very (happy).

5. She asked it (quiet).

6. The two books looked (different).

7. It tastes (bad).

8. Our new students work hard.

Exercise 2. Choose the proper form (Adjective or Adverb) given in parenthesis.

1. John does his job very (good, well) because he has (good, well) instruments.

2. Ann was ill, but now she is (good, well).

3. Nick is a (careless, carelessly) driver. He drives (careless, carelessly).

4. The situation is (bad, badly), but it could be much (bad, badly).

Комунікативна практика

Порівняння, почуття, відчуття (look, feel, sound, smell, and taste + adjective)

В англійській мові часто використовуються безособові вислови, що містять порівняння:

It sounds good. – Звучить добре.

It smells terrific. – Пахне погано.

It tastes beautiful. – Смакує чудово.

На відміну від української мови в таких реченнях використовують не прислівники, а прикметники, тобто порівняльна характеристика (good, terrific, beautiful) в англійському реченні відноситься до займенника it, а дієслова sound, smell, taste використовуються лише для зв’язку слів у реченні (linking verbs). Це стає цілком зрозумілим, якщо ми порівняємо наведені речення з прикладом, де особа вказана, а дієслово-зв’язка без будь-якої шкоди до змісту під час перекладу може бути пропущена:

I feel hungry. = I am hungry. Я голодний.

Exercise. Listen to the conversation and then use it as a model talking with your classmates.

A: What is in this box? It smells delicious!

B: Don’t touch it. It’s uncle’s Tom birthday cake. Why didn’t you have breakfast?

A: I felt awful. You know, we had a nice party yesterday…

B: Oh, I understand your feelings. Don’t worry; we’ll arrive in fifteen minutes.

A: It sounds good. I’m starving.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

The real beginnings of computers as we know them today lay with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage (1791-1871). Frustrated at the many errors he found while examining calculations for the Royal Astronomical Society, Babbage declared, ‘I wish to God these calculations had been performed by steam!’ With those words, the automation of computers had begun. By 1812, Babbage noticed a natural harmony between machines and mathematics: machines were best at performing tasks repeatedly without mistake; while mathematics, particularly the production of mathematic tables, often required the simple repetition of steps. The problem centered on applying the ability of machines to the needs of mathematics. Babbage’s first attempt at solving this problem was in 1822 when he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. Powered by steam and large as a locomotive, the machine would have a stored program and could perform calculations and print the results automatically. After working on the Difference Engine for 10 years, Babbage was suddenly inspired to begin work on the first general-purpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, a daughter of English poet Lord Byron, was instrumental in the machine’s design. One of the few people who understood the Engine’s design as well as Babbage, she helped revise plans, secure funding from the British government, and communicate the specifics of the Analytical Engine to the public. Also, her fine understanding of the machine allowed to create the instruction routines to be fed into the computer, making her the first female computer programmer. Babbage’s steam-powered Engine, although ultimately never constructed, may seem primitive by today’s standards. However, it outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept. Consisting of over 50,000 components, the basic design of the Analytical Engine included input devices in the form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a “store” for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a “mill” with a control unit that allowed processing instructions in any sequence, and output devices to produce printed results. Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to encode the machine’s instructions from the Jacquard loom. The loom, produced in 1820 and named after its inventor, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched boards that controlled the patterns to be woven.

In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Holerith (1860-1929), also applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing. His first task was to find a faster way to compute the census in the USA. The previous census in 1880 had taken nearly seven years to count and with an expanding population, the bureau feared it would take 10 years to count the latest census. Unlike Babbage’s idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s method used cards to store data information which he fed into a machine that compiled the results mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number, and combinations of two punches represented one letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a single card. Instead of ten years, census takers compiled their results in just six weeks with Hollerith’s machine. In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage method for data and they helped reduce computational errors. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924. Both business and government used punch cards for data processing until the 1960’s.

Exercise 2. Make comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives and adverbs.

late, lately, near, nearly (almost), especially, well, already, simple, rarely, far.

Exercise 3. Put the adverb in the parenthesis in an appropriate form (comparative or superlative).

1. I like this program (well) ________ than that.

2. Which of these TV channels do you enjoy (much) _______ ?

3. Which of these two books did you like (much) ________ ?

4. He does his job (correctly) _________ of all in this group.

5. The virus spread out (quickly) _______ than we expected.

6. With these new glasses I can see you (clearly) _______ than before.

Exercise 4. Translate sentences. Pay attention to the verb to take.

1. When messages are sent along the Internet, they are broken up into small “packets” that take different routes to get to the destination.

2. When selecting firewalls, the following considerations should be taken into account.

3. But when steps are taken to hide the sequence the result can have significant strength.

4. Typically, a ciphertext is deciphered under different keys until plaintext is recognised. On average, this may take about half as many decipherings as there are keys.

5. Typically these take the form of iterative applications of fairly simple computations.

6. Involution is a cipher which takes plaintext to ciphertext and ciphertext back to plaintext, using the exact same operation.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Skim the text and answer the questions about it content.

In the ensuing years, several engineers made other significant advances. Vannevar Bush (1890-1974) developed a calculator for solving differential equations in 1931. The machine could solve complex differential equations that had long left scientists and mathematicians baffled. The machine was cumbersome because hundreds of gears and shafts were required to represent numbers and their various relationships to each other. To eliminate this bulkiness, John V.Atanasoff, a professor at Iowa State College and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, envisioned an all-electronic computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry. This approach was based on the mid-19th century work of George Boole (1815-1864) who clarified the binary system of algebra, which stated that any mathematical equations could be stated simply as either true or false. By extending this concept to electronic circuits in the form of on or off, Atanasoff and Berry had developed the first all-electronic computer by 1940. Their project, however, lost its funding and their work was overshadowed by similar developments by other scientists.

With the onset of the World War II, governments sought to develop computers to exploit their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects hastened technical progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode encrypted German messages. The Colossus’s impact on the development of the computer industry was rather limited for two important reasons. First, Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until decades after the war.

American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), a Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded in producing an all-electronic calculator by 1944. The purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about half as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring. The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I for short, was a electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was slow (taking 3-5 seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations could not change).

Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the U.S. government and the University of Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power, enough energy to dim the lights in an entire section of a big city. Developed by John Presper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC, unlike the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I.

In the mid-1940’s John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that remained central to computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer EDVAC in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data.

This “stored memory” technique as well as the “conditional control transfer,” that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. One of UNIVAC’s impressive early achievements was predicting the winner of the 1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

1. How big and fast were the first computers?

2. What type of computer was Colossus?

3. What were the first industrial computers used for?

4. What provided versatility in computer programming?

5. Which of computers predicted the winner of the 1952 presidential election in the USA?

Exercise 2. Explain the terms with other words.

1. Speed of computer.

2. General purpose computer.

3. Stored memory.

4. Encoding/decoding.

5. Programming.

6. Computer architecture.

Граматичні відомості

Прийменник (The Preposition)

Як і в українській мові, англійські прийменники характери­зують відношення іменника чи займенника до інших слів у реченні:

He studies atNational Aviation University.

I cut the paper witha scissors.

Англійські іменники майже не змінюються за відмінком. Для погодження слів у реченні часто використовують прийменники, тобто вони часто виконують функцію, що відповідає зміні українських слів за відмінком:

The book was signed bytheauthor. –Книга підписана автором (орудний відмінок).

I showed the book totheauthor. –Я показав авторові книгу (давальний відмінок).

Правильне використання прийменників є одним з най­складніших завдань під час вивчення англійської мови. Зміст багатьох англійських дієслів часто суттєво залежить від приймен­ника, що використовується разом з ними:

to look after (the children) –бути відповідальним (піклуватися);

to look at (Peter) – дивитися;

to look back on(those days) – згадувати;

to look for(a book) – шукати;

to look into(the crime) – розслідувати;

to look through(the paper) – швидко переглядати.

У деяких випадках вони фактично утворюють сталі сполучення з дієсловами – ідіоми.

Надзвичайно складною для українців, що вивчають англійську мову є відсутність сталої відповідності між значеннями українських та англійських прийменників. Наприклад, прийменник in в залежності від контексту може позначати: положення (in the garden – у садку, in the street – на вулиці, in the space – в космосі); прибуття, входження (to arrive in the city – приїхати до міста); час (in an hour –за/через годину) і так далі. Інколи значення прийменника англійської мови передається взагалі не прийменником, а іншими засобами, наприклад, зміною іменника, як у розглянутих вище прикладах з орудним та давальним відмінками, прислівниками, наприклад, in the winter – взимку та ін., наприклад, tree in fruit – дерево, вкрите плодами.

Під час вивчення англійської мови слід засвоювати не лише значення прийменників як окремих одиниць мови, але також і їх значення у сполученні з іншими частинами мови – дієсловами, іменниками, займенниками, необхідно запам’ятовувати окремі ідіоми, в яких застосовуються прийменники. У додатку 3 цього посібника наведені приклади використання деяких з найбільш вживаних прийменників англійської мови. Більш докладну інформацію про використання прийменників у конкретних сполученнях з іншими словами слід шукати у словниках та фразеологічних довідниках, зокрема у рекомендованих у списку літератури наприкінці посібника.

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with appropriate prepositions. Check it with a dictionary if you are not sure in usage of prepositions.

1. He studies ___ National Aviation University.

2. She threw a stone _____ the river.

3. This building is made _____ wood.

4. A paper is made _______ wood.

5. I have been working here ____ two hours.

6. They are waiting ___ us.

7. I reminded ___ his promise.

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English.

1. Зустріч відбудеться у неділю.

2. Будь ласка, відріжте цей шматок.

3. Він притулився до стіни, читаючи газету.

4. Я залишусь тут до понеділка.

5. Підійдіть до мене.

6. Це відбулось до закінчення лекції.

7. Я поїду з вами до аеропорту.

КОМУНІКАТИВНА ПРАКТИКА

Згадуючи минуле

Listen to the conversation and then practice with your classmate. Correct mistakes in answers.

A: Listen, here’s a quiz on events of the twentieth century.

B: Oh, I used to be good at history, so let me give it a try.

A: OK. First question: who was the first man in space?

B: Oh, it’s easy; it was Neil Armstrong in 1966, then he flew to the moon in the summer 1969.

A: Well… And when did World War II begin?

B: It began in 1941 when Japanese fleet attacked Pearl Harbor and lasted till August 1945 when Hiroshima was destroyed.

A: Hmm... Next question: how long has the UN been in existence?

B: Since 1961 when Cuban Missile Crisis was settled. Uh, how am I doing so far?

A: Not excellent. None of your answers was correct.

Декілька корисних нотаток щодо посилань на події та дати у минулому:

Referring to a definite point of time in the past use in,duringandago.

Personal computers came to common use during 1990s.

The Soviet space program started 50 years ago.

To express a period of time expressions from … to,for,till(until) are used.

World War I lasted from 1914 to 1918.

Hitler wanted to start in the fall of 1940, but his advisers persuaded him to avoid the risks of a winter campaign in the Soviet Union and wait until the spring.

"How long did you live in Spain?" - "Oh, for about three years."

To express a period of time that continuous now use sinceandfor.

No human has landed on the moon since the Apollo project ended.

Exercise. Work with a partner and share your experience in spending summer vacations, camping, etc.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 170-171 (Exercise 1) into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with prepositions at, on or in.

1. Are you busy ___ the weekend?

2. I’ll call you ____ Monday morning ____ 9 o’clock.

3. Peter’s brother is working ___ the University ____ the moment.

4. I read this article ____ two hours.

5. I might not be at home ___ the morning. Could you call me ___ night instead.

6. He was born in Kharkiv ____ 1977.

7. Hurry up! We must be ____ the airport ____ 15 minutes.

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

1. What did you hear about different generations of computers? How strict is this division?

2. How important was replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors?

3. What components are essential for modern computers?

4. Why there are a lot of programming languages? How different are operations written in programs from real operations executed by computers?

5. What do you know about development of computer technologies in Ukraine after the World War II?

Exercise 2. Work with your classmate. Offer some verbs concerning the topic of the lesson. Your partner has to give adverbs fitted them.

Example: to develop (technologies) - fast, creatively, rapidly, unexpectedly, etc.

Make comparative and superlative degrees of these adverbs if possible.

Граматичні відомості

Місце прийменника у реченні. Збіг за формою деяких прийменників та прислівників

Зазвичай, як і в українській мові, прийменник в англійському реченні розміщується перед іменником чи займенником:

Ann studies atthe university.

You must talk tohim.

Якщо перед іменником є означення, то прийменник ставиться перед цим означенням:

I live inabighouse.

Однак у деяких випадках, особливо це характерно для мовлення, прийменник також може відокремлюватись від іменника або займенника та зміщуватись на кінець речення:

Whom do you speak to? (To whom do you speak?)

The place which he is going to (towhich he is going) seems very distant.

Таке відокремлення прийменника від об’єкта також характерно для деяких пасивних та інфінітивних зворотів, що були розглянуті раніше:

The priest was sent for.У активі: They sentforthe priest.

I have no tools to work with.

Слід зауважити, що ті самі слова можуть виконувати у різних ситуаціях роль як прийменника, так і прислівника:

Tim had climbed upa tree to get a better view. – Тім зібрався на дерево, щоб побачити кращій краєвид. – прийменник.

Tim climbed up to see better. – Тім зібрався нагору, щоб краще бачити. – прислівник.

Часто такі слова нерозривно пов’язуються з дієсловами, утворюючи так звані подвійні (інколи потрійні) дієслова: to turn on (off) – вмикати (вимикати), to put on (off) – одягати (знімати), to cross out – закреслювати, to drop out of – припиняти щось відвідувати і т.д. Як правило, слова on, off, out і т.п. виконують роль прислівника, оскільки характеризують процес, дієслово, а не є просто зв’язкою між дієсловом та іменником.

Остання частина подібного подвійного дієслова може відокремлюватись і переноситись на кінець речення:

Please turn off the light. = Please turn the light off. – Будь ласка, вимкніть світло.

Оскільки на практиці питання про віднесення слів до певної частини мови не є дуже важливим для більшості людей, у словниках і фразеологічних посібниках вищезгадані прийменники-прислівники розглядаються разом. Так це зроблено й у додатку 2 цього посібника, де поруч з прийменниками надані приклади і для прислівників, що збігаються за формою з прийменниками.

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Над ким він сміявся?

2. Кого вона шукає?

3. Запитайте його, від кого він щойно отримав повідомлення.

4. Проблема, над якою вони зараз працюють, дуже актуальна.

5. У мене нема олівця, щоб я міг писати.

6. Він вчиться у добре відомому в усьому світі університеті.

Exercise 2. Listen to an introduction of a teacher at a beginning of a class. Find out in the text two word verbs. Pay attention that in all cases the object is between the verb and preposition. Then try to read the text in another way, putting the object after the preposition. After reading check yourself listening to the text again.

Good morning for everybody. Today I’m going to explain you how to use a new program. First of all I want you to take your pens and notebooks off and be ready to write all I say down. Nick, please pull the windows shades down: today the sun shines too brightly. And Ann, please pick all these things up. Maybe the previous group left them. Peter, try the computer out. Don’t forget to turn the main switch on. Ann, turn your mobile phone off. Now, let’s start. Peter, put the CD in and run the program.

Комунікативна практика

Порівняння об’єктів

First listen to the following conversation as an example and then practice your own conversation with you partner. Use adjectives and adverbs including comparative and superlative forms as often as you can.

A: What city do you like, Ann?

B: Kyiv is the best.

A: Why?

B: It's exciting. It's bigger. The buildings are taller. The people are livelier.

A: I understand what do you mean, but I like Poltava better.

B: Why is that?

A: Well, it’s slower, it’s smaller, and it’s cosier.

B: OK. You know as they say, “The east, the west, the home is best”.

Exercise. Practice conversation with you partner following example. Use adjectives and adverbs including comparative and superlative forms.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text into Ukrainian (Russian).

First Generation Computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.

By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer’s development. The transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the size of electronic machinery has been shrinking ever since (Second Generation Computers, 1956-1963). The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage of this transistor technology were early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand. These computers, both developed for atomic energy laboratories, could handle an enormous amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic scientists. The machines were costly, however, and tended to be too powerful for the business sector’s computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness. Only two LARCs were ever installed: one in the Lawrence Radiation Labs in Livermore, California, for which the computer was named (Livermore Atomic Research Computer) and the other at the U.S. Navy Research and Development Center. Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult binary codes.

Throughout the early 1960’s, there were a number of commercially successful second generation computers used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control Data, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others. These second generation computers were also of solid state design, and contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is considered by many to be the Model T of the computer industry. By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information using second generation computers.

It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept meant that instructions to run a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held inside the computer’s memory, and could quickly be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. A computer could print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate paychecks. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into common use during this time, and have expanded to the current day. These languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences, and mathematical formulas, making it much easier to program a computer. New types of careers (programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software industry began with second generation computers.

Exercise 2. Use vocabulary from Exercise 1 to complete the sentences below.

1. Programs fall into two major classes: ___________ programs and __________ systems.

2. ______________ is used in artificial intelligence research and to perform such tasks as machine translation, process control, handwriting recognition, and weather forecasting.

3. Ceramic metal-oxide compounds containing rare earth elements were found to be _____________ at temperatures high enough to permit using liquid nitrogen as a coolant.

4. Dialog between the ________ and the computer is usually accomplished by command-line or graphical ________ interfaces (GUIs).

5. News reporters can compose news stories on portable PCs, called _________, and electronically submit these stories from remote locations.

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Listen to the text and then answer the questions.

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer’s sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Another Third Generation Computers development (1964-1971) included the use of an operating system that allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the computer’s memory.

Modern development of computers is usually considered as Forth Generation. After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down – in size, that is. Large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980’s, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so much onto an area about half the size of a U.S. dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit had had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as microwave ovens, television sets and cars incorporated microprocessors.

Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer’s power. They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or government contracts. By the mid-1970’s, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical users an array of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. In the early 1980’s, video games ignited consumer interest for more sophisticated, programmable home computers.

In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. The 1980’s saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket). In direct competition with IBM’s PC was Apple’s Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. Notable for its user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of one’s hand on the computer screen.

As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer, which was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form electronic co-ops like Internet.

1. What allowed microprocessors to be widely used in everyday life?

2. Which common things use microcomputers?

3. Why PC’s became widespread so quickly?

4. Which companies pioneered in development of personal computers?

5. What are distinguishing features of modern PCs?

6. What generation of computers followed the Forth Generation?