Module 2. The electric current and its properties
Lesson 1
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text.
Electricity is one of the basic forms of energy. Electricity is associated with electric charge, a property of certain elementary particles such as electrons and protons, two of the basic particles that make up the atoms of all ordinary matter. Electric charges can be stationary, as in static electricity, or moving, as in an electric current.
The charges are free electrons (in metals) or ions (in liquids and gases). We can easily understand the nature of the electric current on the basis of electron theory. An atom is a complex particle in which tiny electrons move around a nucleus. In metals some of the electrons move freely among the atoms. There are free electrons. The electromotive force causes the electrons to move through the metal conductor.
There are two types of the electric current, namely, the direct current (d. c. for short) and alternating current (a. c.). The electric current can heat a conductor, it can have chemical action, or it can produce the magnetic effect.
The electric current starts to flow from a battery or a generator, passes through wires, lamps, meters and other resistance and returns to its starting point. All these devices and conductors constitute the circuit. A steady electric current, like a water current, has the same value at all parts of a simple unbranched circuit.
The electric current flows only when there is a different of potential between the two points in the circuit. The opposition to the current flow is the resistance. Thus we can say that the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance (Ohm’s law).
There are special units of measurement of electric quantities. The ampere is a unit of rate of flow of electric current. The ampere indicates the amount of electric current. The volt is a unit of electrical pressure. The international volt creates a current of one international ampere in a conductor, which has a resistance of one international ohm. The watt is a unit of power, which electric devices develop. One watt is equal to a current of one ampere as a result of one volt.
We measure these electrical quantities with the help of special instruments named as measuring devices. We measure current with ammeter, voltage with voltmeter and power with wattmeter.
Ammeters measure the current flowing in a circuit and normally have scales graduated (or calibrated) in amperes, milliamperes, or microamperes. The ammeter has a low resistance coil not to absorb an appreciable amount of power; therefore, we connect the ammeter into a circuit in series.
Voltmeters measure the potential difference between the two points in a circuit. We connect a voltmeter in parallel across the points where it is necessary to measure the difference of potential. The resistance of voltmeter operation coil is as high as possible to limit the amount of power consumed by it.
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alternating/direct current (a. c./d.c.) conductor electric charge electric circuit electron electromotive force insulator, isolator ion in series matter |
змінний/постійний струм провідник електричний заряд електричне коло електрон електрорушійна сила ізолятор іон послідовно речовина, матерія |
meter
nucleus, nuclei operating coil potential difference power resistance unbranched voltage to absorb to consume |
вимірювальний прилад ядро, ядра робоча котушка різниця потенціалів потужність, напруга опір нерозгалужений напруга поглинати споживати |
Exercise 2. Answer the questions.
What forms of energy do you know?
Why electricity is the most important form of energy in modern technologies and everyday life?
What are the common sources of electric current?
What do you think are advantages and disadvantages of different forms of electric current, direct and alternating?
What are the main sources of electricity in this country?
What main rules of electric current do you know?
What types of measuring instruments are employed to fix damages in electric lines?
Exercise 3. Work in pairs. Find out if your classmate …
used to work with some electrical instruments.
didn’t use to like learning laws of electricity in school.
has to study tomorrow.
has a million things to do after class.
knows the latest weather forecast.
Граматичні відомості
Форма дієслів Simple (Indefinite)
Форма Present Simple виражає:
а) Дії звичайні, постійні, властиві об’єкту взагалі, а не в момент дії, закони природи, визначення.
The classical approach to user authentication is a password.
Users want access to information as quickly as possible.
Students go to the university in the morning.
The Earth goes round the Sun.
The input devices enter the information into the computer.
Computers are electronic devices that process the information.
East or west, home is best.
б) Моделювання перебігу часу, пояснення, репортаж, сценарій, авторська ремарка.
When the generator voltage reaches a certain value, the electro-magnet M attracts a small iron armature and opens the contacts S1. This reduces the generator current and causes voltage to fall.
This program is very easy to operate. Look. I choose icon, click mouse button and it starts.
Mary walks toward the door, hesitates a moment, then goes out.
в) Дії, які відбуваються під час мови, якщо використовуються дієслова, що висловлюють почуття, сприйняття, прагнення – стани на рівні підсвідомості суб’єкта (believe, understand, hate, love, seem та ін.).
I like this program. I see the sky.
I don’t understand the reason.
I believe you. I think you are right.
г) Майбутні дії в підрядних реченнях місця та часу після сполучників if якщо, when коли, until якщо … ні, as soon as як тільки, before до того як і так далі.
We’ll go there unlessitrains.
The secret key will of course be changed when any member of the group leaves.
д) Майбутні події, що плануються як реалізація розкладу, планів, особливо часто з дієсловами, які позначують рух.
Tomorrow isSunday. The trainleavesat 5:00.
The meeting takesplace on Wednesday.
Форма Past Simple використовується:
Для вираження минулої дії з такими позначеннями часу, якlast year,the other day,yesterday,at that period:
In 1974Braunobservedthat the current-voltage characteristics of the system were asymmetric with respect to the voltage polarity. –У 1974 році Браун винайшов, що вольт-амперні характеристики системи асиметричні щодо полярності напруги.
б) Для вираження минулих дій в тій послідовності, в якій вони відбувались:
The manager enteredthe office,sat downat his desk, andbeganto look through the morning male. – Менеджерввійшов до офісу, сів за свій робочий стіл і розпочав переглядати ранкову пошту.
в) Для звичайної дії в минулому, що повторюється:
Last winter we skated a lot. – Минулої зими ми багато каталися на ковзанах.
У тому ж самому значенні часто використовується сполучення used + infinitive, яке часто перекладається як звичайно:
Last winter we used to skate.
At this stage the samples used to bepurified selenium and tellurium. –На цій стадії як зразки звичайно використовувались очищені селен та телур.
Як вже згадувалось раніш, в англійській мові немає форми майбутнього часу дієслів, тому для висловлення наміру або впевненості щодо здійснення дії у майбутньому звичайно використовуються конструкції з модальними дієсловами (найчастіше з will) або форми теперішнього часу:
I will work tomorrow.
The plain arrives at 5 tomorrow.
Форма Simple (Indefinite) – це єдина часова форма, де в явній формі відсутні допоміжні дієслова. “Приховане” допоміжне дієслово do (does) з’являється лише у питальних та заперечних реченнях:
Does the electron turn around nucleus?
Do you speak English?
I don’t understand you.
It didn’t have enough power to start.
Exercise 1. Find out 10 sentences with Simple Tense in the text from pages 58-59. Transform each of them into negative and interrogative forms.
Exercise 2. Make 5 sentences in the future form concerning the text from pages 58-59.
Комунікативна практика
Correcting mistakes
Listen to the conversation, then use it as a model to make up you own dialogue.
A: How can we produce oxygen?
B: We have to pass alternating current through common water.
A: Maybe direct current…
B: Well, I stand corrected.
A: What is water’s formula?
B: H3O.
A: H2O.
B: I mean H2O.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 58-59 into Ukrainian (Russian).
Exercise 2. Make new words from the following words using common suffixes and prefixes. Use them in sentences to illustrate their meaning.
Example: differ – different – differential – differences.
The two methods differ greatly.
The methods are quite different.
He proposed a machine to perform differential equations.
We must take into account a difference between results.
Lesson 2
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.
What types of electric measuring devices do you know?
Why do you think metals are the best conductors?
Could you formulate the Ohm’s law?
What kind of electric current is more convenient to use at home, direct or alternating? Explain your point of view.
What is resistance? Why different materials have not the same resistance?
What do you know about the alternative sources of electric energy?
What is the difference between an ammeter and voltmeter? How different are the ways of connection of these instruments into electric circuit?
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps using the list of words below.
According to _________ theory, the electron is responsible for a flow of current of electricity. Good _________ are considered to be those substances in which there are present free electrons in constant but indiscriminate motion between the atoms. Under the action of an _________ force, these free electrons move in some definite direction, resulting in a constant stream of electrons flowing at a phenomenally rapid rate in the conductor. In the case a unidirectional or _________ current, this electronic stream is always in one direction, whilst with an _________ current the electronic stream reverses its _________ of motion with regular frequency. All pure _________ are good conductors of electricity, silver being the best since it offers the least _________ to a flow of current of electricity. We know copper to be very nearly as good a conductor as silver and, being very much cheaper, it is extensively used for electrical _________ of all kinds. It is universally employed in all aircraft electrical _________.
The conductor being a _________, say, of salt in water, the molecules of salt are ionized, both positive and negative ions moving under the influence of the electric field. In this case the sum of the quantities of positive and negative electricity, _________by the ions in a unit of time through any cross-section of the liquid, constitutes the electric current. Such a current is usually accompanied by a chemical action.
An electric current is carried through a gas only when the molecules or atoms of the gas are ionized. Here again, both the positive and negative _________ or electrons move under the influence of the electric _________, the sum of the quantities of _________ and negative electricity carried by the ions in a unit of time through any cross-section of the gas constituting the electric _________.
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conductors current electromotive field direct alternative equipment electronic direction metals resistance apparatus solution carried ions positive |
Граматичні відомості
Форма дієслів Progressive (Continuous)
Під час використання форми Present Progressive (Continuous) мають на увазі, що дія відбувається зараз (хоча не обов’язково під час мовлення) і триває певний проміжок часу. Головна відмінність від Present Simple полягає в тому, що під час використання Progressive мається на увазі, що за межами цього проміжку часу дій нема, вони мають тимчасовий характер. Його тривалість чи вказується безпосередньо (now, this year, etc.), що випливає з контексту.
Приклади: When ‘software’ is running, there is no software there: there is only hardware memory. – Коли програма починає працювати [лише в цей період], її ще немає, працює лише пам’ять машини.
Порівняйте: a) Shesingsvery well (she can do it and sometimes she does). – Вона добре співає (уміє та інколи це робить).
b) Sheis singingin a bar now (to make a quick penny). – Вона тимчасово підробляє співачкою у барі.
Як вже згадувалось раніше, є низка дієслів, які описують неспонтанні стани (сприйняття – hear, see, feel), судження (consider, doubt, approve), почуття (love, hate, like), які в формі Progressive звичайно не використовуються.
Слід зазначити, що в ряді випадків ці дієслова можуть використовуватися також в формі Progressive, але їх смисл при цьому звичайно деякою мірою відрізняється:
I’m seeing (відвідую) my brother more often now.
The equipment is improvingmore and more. –Обладнання удосконалюється (мається на увазі, що раніш цього не було).
Нарешті, як і Present Simple, Present Progressive використовується для опису майбутніх подій, зазвичай у розмовній мові.– Heis comingto visit us.
Найчастіше за все для опису майбутнього використовується ідіома to be going to, яка близька за значенням до модального дієслова will: It is certainly true that in most situations of new construction a few extra bytesare not going to bea problem. – Цілком зрозуміло, що в більшості нових конструкцій декілька зайвих байтів не будуть проблемою.
Різниця у значенні між згаданими конструкціями полягає у тому, що дієслово will звичайно використовується у випадках, коли намір щодо майбутнього остаточний, рішення вже прийнято, а ідіома to be going to – у випадках, коли повної впевненості ще нема.
Past Progressive відрізняється від Present Progressive тим, що період, під час якого відбувається подія, знаходиться у минулому. Цей період може бути позначений явно (at six o’clock, whole evening, all day longи т. д.), за допомогою Past Simple чи просто мається на увазі:
It was rainingwhen I left the house.
Коли дві тривалі дії відбуваються в минулому одночасно, вони обидві виражаються за допомогою Past Simple чи Past Progressive. У першому випадку лише констатується факт дії, в другому – дія показується як процес.
While he hadhis breakfast, Ireadthe book.
While he was havinghis breakfast, Iwas reading.
Якщо дія, вираженаPast Progressive,переривається якоюсь короткочасною дією, то така дія виражається Past Simple:
I was drivinghome the day before yesterday when Isawa small red car parked near the gas station. –Коли я їхав позавчора додому, я побачив невелику червону машину, яка стояла біля заправки.
Exercise 1. Discuss the differences in meaning of the italicized verbs in sentences below:
I feelthat it is important to take into account all views.
I’mfeelingwell today.
This new baby-toy feelssoft.
Little Ann is feelingthe new toy.
I havean apartment in new district of city.
I’m havinghard days now.
He rememberseverything about this accident.
Kate is looking through her notebook and she is rememberingvery interesting discussion at the conference.
Exercise 2. Select either Present Simple or Present Progressive form for the verbs in parentheses.
Several teams of astronomers (take) part in the experiment, which (map) one-quarter of the sky using the telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico. Its main purpose is to look at objects outside Earth’s galaxy, but it also (catalog) smaller and closer objects such as asteroids. “We (see) radio waves emitted by water molecules,” Gomez said. “They are all destroyed within 100 years of the beginning of this stage, so we (see) this star during an extremely brief transition period of its life.”
Radio receiver (consist) of straightforward high-frequency amplifier, detector, and low-frequency amplifier circuits.
How to make it rain is probably the last thing the flood-drenched inhabitants of the UK and elsewhere in Europe (want) to think about at the moment. But the natural variability of the weather (regardless of any enhancement from global warming) (mean) we are bound to be facing drought again sooner or later. And drought (be), of course, the normal preoccupation of people in many parts of the world.
Exercise 3. Translate paying special attention to the meaning of the word ‘follow’.
It will allow Norman and his group to extend the dynamic range of its calculations on both the high end (to start with a larger portion of the universe) and the low (to follow the condensing protostellar cloud to the point of ignition).
This followed a chance observation by the late Graeme Mather, a South African weather researcher.
The stated conclusion does not follow from the evidence supplied.
An increase in both the bell-shaped S curve and the slope of the δQ curve is apparent for heating temperatures up to 500 K followed by a decrease at higher temperatures.
As a follow-up to recent researches we are publishing a review on the subject.
Their experimental method consisted of displaying field effect in the dark and under illumination following different heat treatment.
Комунікативна практика
Призначення зустрічі
Listen to the phone conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.
A: Good morning, Primesecurity Associates, Helen speaking.
B: I’d like to speak to Mr. Brown, please.
A: Who’s calling, please?
B: My name is John Parking. Mr. Brown asked me to get in touch when I arrived in your city.
A: Please hold.
C: Good morning, Mr. Parking, Karl Adams speaking. Mr. Brown isn’t in right now, but he’s waiting for you. Do you need any help with accommodation?
A: Thank you, no problem. I’m in a Galaxy Hilton.
C: I’m looking forward to meeting you.
A: What time could I arrive?
C: Can you come by tomorrow at 9 o’clock?
A: Yes, I think so. Where are you located?
B: We’re at the new office building just in front the Star Market building. You can just walk here from your hotel. It wouldn’t take more than 15 minutes on foot.
A: Thanks. I’ll see you tomorrow morning.
C: See you, bye-bye.
Some useful phrases to point out the direction:
Walk (go) straight forward (ahead). Go up (down) the street. Walk two blocks (to the next cross, corner, etc.). It’s across from (between, next to, on the (your) left, etc. Turn right (left).
Exercise 1. Work in pairs or small groups. Make an appointment with someone (for business meeting, party, etc.).
Exercise 2. Try to explain someone how to get to some place.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 64-65 into Ukrainian (Russian).
Exercise 2. Insert the proper forms of the verb using Simple (I do) or Progressive (I am doing).
The Dnipro river _________ (flow) to the Black Sea.
This stream ________ (flow) very fast today – much faster than usual.
Right now I _________ (look) at the screen. I _________ (see) some figures.
John is at the class. He _________ (sit) at a desk. He ________ (pass) a test. The dictionary he ________ (use) _________ (belong, not) to him. It _________ (belong) to Nick.
While Tom ________ (eat) his breakfast, Jerry ________ (come) through the door. In other words, when Jerry _______ (come) through the door, Tom __________ (eat) his breakfast.
Sam, is it true, that you _________ (go) to the library this afternoon?
What time _________ (the next plane/leave)?
Exercise 3. Insert the proper forms of the verb using will or going to.
I’ve listened to the weather forecast. I’m sure that it _________ (rain) at 5 o’clock.
Are you going shopping? – Yes, I ________ (buy) something for lunch.
Peter, can you give me a ride to the airport? – Of course I _____________ take you.
What _____________ (do) tomorrow? – I’m working tomorrow morning.
The conference __________ (open) on 12 April and ________ (finish) on 15 April.
________ you (invite) Nick to the party? – No, I ___________ (not/invite) him.
What are your vacation plans? – I _______ (go) to Crimea.
Lesson 3
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Exercise 1. Listen to the text and fill in blanks.
There are several different _________ that can supply the voltage ________ to generate an electric current. The two most common ________ are generators and ________ cells.
Generators use mechanical energy, such as water pouring through a dam or the motion of a turbine driven by ________, to produce electricity. The electric _________ on the walls of homes and other _________, from which electricity to operate lights and _________ is drawn, are connected to giant _________ located in electric power _________. Each outlet contains two _________. The voltage between the terminals drives an electric _________ through the appliance that is _______ into the outlet.
Electrolytic cells use __________ energy to produce electricity. Chemical _________ within an electrolytic cell produce a __________ difference between the cell’s terminals. An electric battery __________ of a cell or group of cells connected together.
There are many sources of electric current other than ________ and electrolytic cells. Fuel cells, for example, ______ electricity through chemical reactions. Unlike electrolytic cells, however, ________ cells do not store chemicals and therefore must be constantly refilled.
Certain sources of electric current operate on the __________ that some metals hold onto their electrons more _________ than other metals do. Platinum, for example, holds its ________ less strongly than aluminium does. If a strip of ___________ and a strip of aluminium are pressed together under the proper conditions, some electrons will flow from the platinum to the aluminium. As the aluminium _______ electrons and becomes negative, the platinum loses electrons and becomes _______.
The strength with which a metal holds its electrons varies with _________. If two strips of different metals are ________ and the joint heated, electrons will pass from one strip to the other. Electricity produced ________ by heating is called thermoelectricity.
Some substances emit electrons when they are _______ by light. Electricity produced in this way is called photoelectricity. When ________ is applied to certain crystals, a potential difference _________ across them. Electricity thus produced is called piezoelectricity. Some microphones work on this __________.
Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.
What are the sources of electric power?
Which forms of energy can be transformed into electric energy?
Which devices of mentioned above are used for creating a direct current and which ones for an alternating current?
Could you explain principles of action of a transformer, which change a voltage of the electric current?
How is it possible to transform the direct current into the alternating one and vice versa?
What do you know about the potential series of metals?
What are microphones used for?
Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false using information from Exercise 1. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.
Any electrochemical element could be refilled or recharged.
Some outlets of the walls contain 3 or even more terminals.
Electrolytic cells as well as fuel cells use chemical reactions to produce electric energy.
Piezoelectric cells use the energy of falling water to create the alternating current.
Generators can not be used for producing a direct electric current.
Platinum has negative charge being immersed into solution of electrolyte together with aluminium.
Platinum holds some electrons more weakly than aluminium does.
ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВІДОМОСТІ
Особливості використання ідіоми “to be going to do something”
Під час розмови “going to” використовується щодо рішення, яке вже прийняте до початку розмови:
Can you repair the computer? It’s burnt. – I know, I’m going to do it afternoon.
Якщо рішення прийняте щойно, використовується will у значенні “я згоден”.
Could you do it for me? – OK, no problem, I’ll do.
Ідіома “to be going to” часто використовується у випадках, коли теперішні обставини вказують на певну подію у найближчому майбутньому:
We got stuck in a traffic jam. We’re going to be late.
В інших випадках варто використовувати will:
I think Tom will pass his exam.
Exercise. Complete the sentences with ‘be going to’ or will.
Come on, hurry up! Make a decision. – Well, we ________ turn left.
Did you post a letter? – Don’t worry, I remember. I __________ do it afternoon.
Nick, we’re out of floppy disks. – OK. I ________ order this.
Ann, do you want me to take you to the station? – No, thanks, Peter __________ take me.
I can’t work out how to use this program. – It’s easy. I ___________ show you.
Комунікативна практика
Характеризування людей
В англійській мові існує декілька типових питань про людей в залежності від інформації, що ми бажаємо отримати:
Як він (вона) виглядає? – What does he (she) look like?
Який він (взагалі, тобто звички, характер та ін.)? – What’s he like?
Хто він (ім’я, звідки)? – Who is he?
Чим він займається (професія)? –What’s he?
Що йому подобається робити? – What does he like doing?
Що би він обрав (щодо планів)? – What would he like to do?
Як він себе почуває (як здоров’я)? – How is he?
Exercise 1. Employ the above questions in a conversation with your class mate.
Exercise 2. Work in a group. Describe some well-known person not giving the name. All other class mates have to guess who is it.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 69-70 into Ukrainian (Russian).
Exercise 2. Make five examples of general questions and five examples of personal questions to ask your classmates during next lesson. Examples of general information: weather forecast, new model of computer, what’s on TV; examples of personal information: family life, health of co-speaker.
Exercise 3. Combine the content of two sentences into one sentence using clauses of time and condition (see p. 60, г). Note, that you must use comma “,” when the subordinate clause comes before the main clause:
When the weather is fine, we’ll go to the park.
No comma is used when the subordinate clause follows the main clause:
Peter’s going to the cinema after he does homework.
Example: (as soon as) First: Nick will finish his work.
Then: He will watch TV.
Nick will watch TV as soon as he finishes his work. OR
As soon as he finishes his work, Nick will watch TV.
|
1) |
(after) |
First: Then: |
The rain will stop. I’ll go home. |
|
2) |
(when) |
First: Then: |
I will get home tonight. I’m going to take a shower. |
|
3) |
(before) |
First: Then: |
We are going to get visa. We will leave for Greece. |
|
4) |
(if) |
First: Then: |
Electron will have enough energy. It will reach the anode. |
|
5) |
(as soon as) |
First: Then: |
The cyclone will go to the north. The weather will start improving. |
|
6) |
(when) |
First: Then: |
We well have enough money. Our laboratory will get new equipment. |
|
7) |
(if) |
First: Then: |
I’m going to see Peter tomorrow. I’ll give him your message. |
Lesson 4
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations in sentences of your own:
resistance, generator, semiconductor, flashlight, wire, copper, zinc, acid, cell, direct, alternating, condenser, impedance, coil, circuit, current.
Exercise 2. Complete the sentences.
The international volt is …
The electric current can heat a conductor, …
… creates a current of one international ampere in a conductor, which has a resistance of one international ohm.
The ammeter has a low resistance coil …
The Ohm’s law says that …
There are a lot of demonstrations of atmospheric electricity …
All tanks with flammable liquids must be carefully grounded because …
Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.
The load in any electric circuit includes all appliances placed in the circuit, such as lights, radios, fans, buzzers, and toasters but doesn’t include the connecting wires, as well as switches, fuses, and other devices.
When pressure is applied to certain crystals, a potential difference develops across them. Electricity thus produced is called photoelectricity. Some photo cameras work on this principle.
Iron is the best conductor. Most of connecting wires are made of iron.
In certain conditions gold is the best conductor. Because of this it is widely used in electronic equipment.
Series connection is the best way for plugging in household appliances.
Граматичні відомості
Форма дієслів Perfect
В технічних текстах форма Perfect використовується порівняно рідко: коли потрібно вказати результат дії.
They in fact have detected something unusual.
Skeptics have attacked previous results for their lack of statistical rigour.
Скептики критикували попередні результати за недостатню суворість з погляду статистики.
By the time the arm of the loop has completed half a revolution it is sweeping past a south magnetic pole.
У той час коли контакт контуру завершує півоберту, він проходить вздовж південного полюсу.
Present Perfect ніколи не використовується, якщо вказано, коли відбулась дія за допомогою таких слів, як yesterday, last week, at five o’clock, an hour ago і так далі. В цьому випадку використовують форму Past Simple. Однак при цьому слід пам’ятати, що зі словами, що позначають період часу, який ще не закінчився (today, this week, this month и т.д.), може використовуватися Present Perfect: Have you read the newspaper today? В той же час з такими словами часто використовується і Past Simple, при цьому розуміється, що подія відбулася в той період, який вже завершився: I got up early today (мається на увазі, що я прокинувся вранці, але вже день).
З прислівниками lately (за останній час) и just (щойно) практично завжди використовується Present Perfect (принаймні у Великій Британії).
I’ve just seen him.
З прислівником just now, який також позначає тільки що, використовується Past Simple: I saw him just now.
Дуже часто Present Perfect використовується з такими прислівниками невизначеного часу, як ever, never, often, already, yet.
He hasn’t finishedhis workyet.
Розглянута функція Present Perfectзвичайно відповідає минулому часу нашої мови (дія відбулась).
Інша функція Present Perfect –позначення дії, яка почалася в минулому і триває зараз:
He has beenhere since two o’clock. –Він є тут з другої години.
В цьому випадку під час перекладу використовується теперішній час нашої мови. Present Perfect фактично виконує функцію Present Perfect Progressive.Це пов’язано з тим, що дієсловоto be (в функції смислового, а не допоміжного дієслова),поряд з дієсловами, що відбивають почуття та сприйняття (know, see, loveі так далі),не використовується в форміProgressive.
Під час перекладу багатьох дієслів, що виражають тривалу дію (стан)–live, study, work, teachі т. д., функції Present Perfect і Present Perfect Progressiveпрактично збігаються:
He has been livinghere since April. = Hehas livedhere since April.
Він мешкає тут з квітня.
Однак в першому випадку увага переважно акцентується на тривалості дії, а в іншому на самому факті його здійснення.
У випадку дієслів, які відображають якусь разову дію (kill, close, bring, take і так далі) використання та переклад форм Perfect і Progressive суттєво відрізняються. Форма Progressive зазвичай показує, що дієслово використовується у переносному сенсі, часто у складі ідіоматичного звороту:
The powerful blast has killedseveral animals. –Потужний вибух вбив декількох тварин.
I’ve walked miles and my feet are killingme. –Я пройшов так багато, що ніг під собою не відчуваю.
Present Perfect Progressive може також використовуватися для вираження тривалої дії, яка розпочалася в минулому, та закінчилася безпосередньо перед моментом мовлення:
Although the sun is shining, it is still cold as it has been raininghard.
Ще холодно, хоча й світить сонце, тому що йшов сильний дощ.
В цьому випадку під час перекладу, як і для Present Perfect, використовується минулий час.
Exercise 1. Use the following verbs in sentences of your own. Employ different verb tenses.
Example: I have been here since April. Kyiv is in Ukraine.
Come, go, predict, calculate, fly, conduct, process.
Exercise 2. Give appropriate forms of the verbs in brackets.
Example: I _didn’t play _ (not play) basketball well before I entered the club.
Nick is a student. He _________ (already/be) a student for four months.
I _________ (never/work) with this model of computer.
During our vacation the weather ________ (be) terrible.
Peter graduated the school four years ago. I _______ (never/meet) him.
John lives in Phoenix. He ______ (live) there all his life.
William lived and died in London. He ________ (live) there all his life.
Комунікативна практика
Характеризування предметів
Описуючи предмети, ми використовуємо різні прикметники та прислівники або інші слова, що виконують їх роль. Подивимось, для прикладу, як ми можемо охарактеризувати новий комп’ютер та його роботу:
I’ve got a new moderncomputer. It worksfast and effectively. It is equipped with all thenecessaryperipheraldevices that allow me to use it for my work as well as for entertainment. It has twohigh speedprocessors that perform more than 10 billion operations per second. Its casingmade of wood and metallooksgreatand attracts the sight of anyone who comes into my room.
Для отримання інформації про предмет ми використовуємо різні типи спеціальних питань, що починаються словами how (big, long, fast …), what/which (colour, weight …), who, whoseі т. д.
Exercise 1. Play a guessing game. Ask your classmate as many questions as possible to get information about an object or a phenomenon.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).
When objects are connected in series, the electric current flows through them against the resistance of the first object, then against the resistance of the next object, and so on. Therefore the total resistance to the current is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. If three objects with resistances R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series, their total resistance is R1 + R2 + R3. For example, if a motor with a resistance of 48 ohms is connected to the terminals of a current source by two wires, each with a resistance of 1 ohm, the total resistance of the motor and wires is 48 + 1 + 1 = 50 ohms. If the voltage is 100 volts, a current of 100/50 = 2 amp will flow through the circuit.
Voltage can be thought of as being used up by the objects in a circuit. The voltage that each object uses up is called the voltage drop across that object. Voltage drop can be calculated from the equation V = IR, where V is the voltage drop across the object, I is the amount of current, and R is the resistance of the object.
In the example of the motor, the voltage drop in each wire is V = IR = 2 × 1 = 2 volts, and the voltage drop in the motor is 2 × 48 = 96 volts. Adding up the voltage drops (2 + 2 + 96) gives a total drop of 100 volts. If various objects are connected to form separate paths between the terminals of a source of electric current, they are said to be connected in parallel.
The total resistance of objects connected in parallel is less than that of any of the individual resistances. This is because a parallel circuit offers more than one branch (path) for the electric current, whereas a series circuit has only one path for all the current.
The electric current through a parallel circuit is distributed among the branches according to the resistances of the branches. If each branch has the same resistance, then the current in each will be equal. If the branches have different resistances, the current in each branch can be determined from the equation I = V/R, where I is the amount of current in the branch, V is the voltage, and R is the resistance.
The greater the resistance of a given branch, the smaller the portion of the electric current flowing through that branch. If a parallel circuit of three branches, with resistances of 10, 15, and 30 ohms, is connected to a 150-volt source, the branch with a resistance of 10 ohms would receive a current of V/R = 150/10 = 15 amp.
Exercise 2. Pretend that you are a master in electricity and you are going to show the ropes for some beginners in an office. Make notes about safe treating common office and household electrical instruments.
Exercise 3. Use the proper forms of the verbs (perfect or perfect continuous):
Look! Somebody ________ (steel) my purse.
I ___________ preparing letters for our clients. I ___________ (finish) four of them and there are two more to write.
I ________ (read) the thesis you gave me to check but I still _______ (not/finish) them yet.
My friend is a writer, he _____________ several books and plays.
When are you going to come? I _________ (already/wait) for an hour.
Lesson 5
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Exercise 1. Calculate the current that flows in a simple unbranched circuit consisted of two batteries of 1.5V and light bulb with a resistance of 1. Internal resistance of each battery is 1. Explain your actions during calculations. Write down and then read math formula.
Exercise 2. Work with a partner or in a small group. Take the notes you made earlier (page 78, exercise 2) and instruct your classmate how to treat safely some electric instrument or appliance.
Exercise 3. Skim during 5-7 minutes the text below and answer the questions about it content.
An alternating current is an electric current that changes direction at regular intervals. When a conductor is moved back and forth in a magnetic field, the flow of current in the conductor will reverse direction as often as the physical motion of the conductor reverses direction. Most electric power stations supply electricity in the form of alternating currents. The current flows first in one direction, builds up to a maximum in that direction, and dies down to zero. It then immediately starts flowing in the opposite direction, builds up to a maximum in that direction, and again dies down to zero. Then it immediately starts in the first direction again. This surging back and forth can occur at a very rapid rate.
Two consecutive surges, one in each direction, are called a cycle. The number of cycles completed by an electric current in one second is called the frequency of the current. In the United States and Canada, most currents have a frequency of 60 cycles per second.
The strength, or amperage, of an alternating current varies continuously between zero and a maximum. Since it is inconvenient to take into account a whole range of amperage values, scientists simply deal with the effective amperage. Like a direct current, an alternating current produces heat as it passes through a conductor. The effective amperage of an alternating current is equal to the amperage of a direct current that produces heat at the same rate. In other words, one effective amp of alternating current through a conductor produces heat at the same rate as one amp of direct current flowing through the same conductor. Similarly, the voltage of an alternating current is considered in terms of the effective voltage.
Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes. In addition, however, various effects produced by the alternating current itself hinder the alternating current. These effects depend on the frequency of the current and on the design of the circuit, and together they are called reactance. The total hindering effect on an alternating current is called impedance. It is equal to the resistance plus the reactance.
What are the properties of an electric current?
How big is the frequency of industrial alternating current?
What is a shape of a diagram of intensity of common alternating current as a function of time?
How different is a resistance of the same section of the circuit to alternating and direct currents.
What is the common equivalent to the term “cycle per second” in this country?
Граматичні відомості
Пасивний стан (Passive Voice)
Пасивний стан використовується для характеризування об’єкта (предмета чи особи), який піддається зовнішньому впливу:
The planets are attractedby the sun.
Планети притягуються Сонцем.
I was invitedto the party.
Я запрошений на вечірку.
У пасивному стані особа чи річ, що є об’єктом впливу, пригортають більше уваги, ніж у випадку активного стану, стоять на першому місці та виконують функцію підмета речення. Порівняємо два речення з близьким змістом:
|
Активний стан | ||
|
Підмет/Subject |
Присудок/Predicate |
Додаток/Object |
|
The potential Потенціал |
moves рухає |
electrons. електрони. |
|
Пасивний стан | ||
|
Підмет/Subject |
Присудок/Predicate |
Додаток/Object |
|
Electrons Електрони |
are moved рухаються |
by the potential. потенціалом. |
Пасивні звороти вживаються, коли взагалі нема потреби згадувати особу, що виконує дію:
Most of electric power is produced at big industrial plants.
В технічних текстах, де звичайно фігурують об’єкти та явища, які зазнають зовнішнього впливу, форми пасивного стану надзвичайно поширені. Різноманітні форми пасивного стану утворюються за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be у відповідному часі та смислового дієслова в формі дієприкметника минулого часу Participle II. При зміні часу змінюється лише допоміжне дієслово to be, а форма смислового дієслова завжди однакова (табл. 7):
Таблиця 7
ФормиPassive Voice
|
|
Simple |
Progressive |
Perfect | ||||||
|
P r e s e n t |
I you we they
he she it |
am
are
is
|
attacked
|
I you we they
he she it |
am
are
is |
being attacked
|
I you we they
he she it |
have
has
|
been attacked |
|
P a s t |
I he she it |
was |
I he she it |
was |
I he she it |
had | |||
|
you we they |
were |
you we they |
were |
you we they | |||||
Форма Passive Perfect Progressive теоретично можлива, але в зв’язку з надзвичайною складністю (три допоміжні дієслова підряд: have been being + Past Participle) вона практично не використовується. Зазвичай в цій функції використовують Present і Past Perfect:
The plan had been discussedfor two hours, when he came.
Коли він прийшов, план вже обговорювався дві години.
В розмовній мові для утворення Passive Voice також часто використовується сполучення to get + Past Participle:
She got bittenby a dog.
ЇЇ вкусив собака. (Вона була вкушена собакою).
Часи пасивного стану використовуються за такими ж правилами, що й відповідні форми активного. Розглянемо декілька характерних прикладів:
The crystal potential is takenas the sum of the potentials of the individual atoms.
Потенціал кристала береться як сума потенціалів окремих атомів (пояснення процедури).
Huge strides in the understanding of surface phenomena were madein a very short time.
Великі кроки щодо розуміння поверхневих явищ було зроблено за дуже короткий час (опис подій в минулому).
The one-dimensional models considered in the previous subsection have been extendedby various workers.
Одномірні моделі, розглянуті в попередньому розділі, набули подальшого розвитку в роботах різних дослідників (має значення лише результат дії, а не її конкретний час).
Then, if improbable statistic values occur repeatedly and systematically, we can infer that something unusual is being found, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis.
Далі, якщо неймовірні статистичні величини з’являються повторно та систематично, ми можемо зробити висновок, що дійсно спостерігається щось незвичайне, що суперечить нуль-гіпотези [підкреслюється тривалий характер дії].
Exercise 1. Change the Active to the Passive.
Example: The potential moves the particle. The particle is moved by the potential.
The potential moves the particles.
The potential is moving the particle.
The potential has moved the particle.
The potential has been moving the particle.
The potential moved the particle.
The potential was moving the particle.
The potential had moved the particle.
The potential is going to move the particle.
Exercise 2. Fill the blanks with a verb from the box using its Past Participle form. Use each verb only once.
|
give, detect, measure, think, base, send, employ |
The presence of an electric current in a circuit may be _______ and its strength may be _________ by a number of different methods, each method being ________ upon some effect which the current produces under given conditions.
These programs are useful because they can be ______ to a user quickly in a case of trouble.
Particular care should be ________ to the correct connection of accumulators for charging.
About one million people are ______ in this brunch of industry.
Computers have often been _______ of as extremely complicated calculators, but this is a very simple standpoint.
Комунікативна практика
Висловлення думок. Пояснення причин
Listen to the conversation, then use it as a model to make up you own dialogue.
A: Hello, how are you?
B: Great! And how are you?
A: OK. We called you yesterday after classes, but no one answered.
B: I was probably cleaning my room when you called. You know my vacuum cleaner is so noisy!
A: Why didn’t you attend our last party?
B: I was so busy with my classes. I have such a huge test next Friday.
A: Well, speaking of classes, what do you think about our new teacher, what’s she like?
B: My friend knows her, because the teacher used to work in his school. She is very smart, but could be very demanding at times.
A: I think it could be only plus for us, because will make us work harder.
B: It’s the thought that counts.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 79-80 into Ukrainian (Russian).
Exercise 2. Find out in the text sentences with Passive Voice. Change them into Active Voice changing meaning.
Exercise 3. Change Active to Passive whenever it possible.
They made this processor in South Korea.
Hackers stole confidential information from the database.
My plane arrives at 10:00.
When did Popov invent the radio?
Translator has transformed the program into machine codes.
Dinosaurs existed millions of years ago.
Prof. Nelson developed that theory.
Lesson 6
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Make a draft of a simple electric circuit consisting of a source of voltage and a few of loads (appliances, instruments, etc.). Explain to your classmate how to calculate the properties of this circuit (resistance, current and power consumption).
Граматичні відомості
Пасивний стан: сполучення дієслова TO BE з дієприкметником минулого часу
Сполучення різних часів дієслова to be з формою Past Participle смислового дієслова може виконувати різні функції і відповідно перекладатись українською мовою різними способами.
Якщо справа стосується дії, вищевказане сполучення є одним з форм пасивного стану, розглянутого під час попереднього уроку і, таким чином, відповідає простому присудку української мови:
New programs are loaded to the server by our system administrator.
Нові програми завантажуються в сервер нашим системним адміністратором.
Якщо не вказана особа, що виконує дію, то звичайно мається на увазі лише стан на теперішній час:
New programs are loaded.
Нові програми завантажені.
У випадку, коли мається на увазі, що стан на теперішній час є наслідком попередньої дії, в англійській мові часто використовується форма Present Perfect Passive:
New programs have been loaded.
При цьому переклад українською мовою лишається незмінним (як у попередньому випадку).
Таким чином, речення, в яких згадується тільки стан об’єкту на теперішній час перекладаються з української англійською мовою двома способами:
|
Лист написаний. |
The letter is written. The letter has been written. |
|
Робота зроблена. |
The work is done. The work has been done. |
Якщо чітко вказано про дію, яка відбувалась, про те хто цю дію виконував, використовуємо тільки Present Perfect Passive:
Листнаписаниймною. The letter has been written by me.
РоботазробленаПетром. The work has been done by Peter.
Речення зі сполученням to be + Past Participleперекладаються іншим чином:
The letter is written by me. Лист пишеться мною. (Я пишу листа.)
The work is done by Peter. Робота робиться Петром. (Петро ро-
бить цю роботу.)
Якщо у сполученні to be + Past Participle використовуються форми дієслова to be минулого та майбутнього часу, тобто was/were та will be, це відповідає українським був/були та буде:
|
The work was done when I came. The work had been done when I came. |
Коли я прийшов, робота була зроблена. |
|
The letter will be written when he comes.1 The letter will have been written when he comes. |
Коли він прийде, лист буде написаний. |
Аналогічно вищесказаному:
The work was done by me yesterday. – Вчора я виконував цю роботу.
The work had been done by me yesterday. – Вчора робота вже була зроблена мною.
The letter will be written by me tomorrow. – Завтра я буду писати цього листа.
The letter will have been written by me tomorrow. – Я напишу цього листа завтра.
Інколи, зазвичай у розмовній мові, у сполученнях, що показують стан особи, чи предмета замість to be + Past Participle використовується сполучення get + Past Participle:
I got tired. = I am tired.
Nobody got hurt. = Nobody was hurt.
Did he get invited? = Was he invited?
Для проміжного (перехідного) стану інколи вживається get у формі Continuous:
I’m getting tired, I need a rest.
Exercise 1. Fill in each blank with suitable form of the verb from brackets. Discuss with your teacher when it is possible to use “get” instead of “be”.
My computer doesn’t work. It __________. (break)
Peter is looking for a new job. He __________ with his present salary. (satisfy)
Excuse me madam, it seems I _____________. I was wondering if you could tell me how can I get a bus to the station. (loose)
_______ you _____________ with Prof. Green? Have you ever met him? (acquaint)
Table salt ___________ of sodium and chlorine. (make)
Poor cat. It _____________ and killed by a car. (run over)
He _____________ in Kyiv. (bear)
There was an earthquake, but fortunately nobody _________ . (hurt)
Exercise 2. Read the text and find different forms of Passive Voice. Explain their usage and meaning.
A Daniell cell consists of metallic zinc immersed in a solution of zinc sulfate and metallic copper immersed in a solution of copper sulfate, the zinc being charged negatively and the copper positively. On joining the two metals, or poles, of this cell by a wire, the temperature of the wire rises. If the wire is cut and its ends then are attached to the two small squares of platinum foil which are then immersed in a solution of copper sulfate, red metallic copper is deposited on one of the pieces of foil. These phenomena indicate that something takes place in the wire joining the poles of Daniell cell – a current of electricity is said to flow through the wire. Since a magnetic needle placed above the wire that is being connected to the poles of Daniell cell is always deflected in the same direction, and since copper is always deposited on the piece of platinum foil being connected to the zinc pole, we may infer that the current flows in a definite direction. The direction of the current has been arbitrarily defined as the direction in which the positive current would have to flow in order to produce observed magnetic effects. It has been found that the weight of copper deposited upon the platinum foil in a given time is less, when the length of the wire joining the poles of the Daniel cell is increased. It would appear, therefore, that the resistance to the flow of the electric current through the wire is augmented by increasing its length.
When two Daniell cells are connected in series by joining the zinc pole of one to the copper pole of the other, then, on attaching a piece of platinum foil to the other pole of each cell and immersing them in a solution of copper sulfate, it is found that the weight of copper deposited on the foil, in a given time, is twice as great as when only one cell is employed, i.e. a greater current of electricity flows through the wire. In some way this combination of the two cells increases the electrical pressure of force – electromotive force (E) – which drives the electric current through the circuit. The current strength varies directly as this electrical pressure of electromotive force.
Exercise 3. Use either active or passive, in any appropriate tense, for the verb in parentheses. If you use passive you have to add auxiliary into write place.
Read-only Memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific data when it (manufacture). ROM chips (use) not only in computers, but in most other electronic items as well. Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile – it not (lose) when power (remove).
Carl Gauss (recognize) as a mathematical genius when he was ten. One day a teacher gave him an arithmetic problem. Carl (ask) to add up all the numbers from 1 to 100 (1 + 2 + 3, etc.). It (take) him a few seconds to solve the problem. How was he able to do it so quickly? He (know) that each pair of numbers with the equal distance from the beginning or from the end of sequence (1 + 100, 2 + 99, 3 + 98…) equaled 101. So he (multiply) 50x101 and (come) up with the result: 5,050.
Комунікативна практика
Спонукання людей до виконання дій: наказ, прохання, домовленість
Exercise 1. Listen to short conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.
Report back to me in an hour, sergeant. – Yes, sir.
Bob, would you please type these letters? And use my printer. It works better. – Of course, Mr. Adams.
Maria, could you help me fix the printer that’s on Mr. Adam’s desk? – Sure.
I’d like to speak to Mr. Adams, please. This is Mr. Smith, Johnson’s Accounting. – Maria speaking. I’m sorry Mr. Adams isn’t at his desk at the moment. Can I take a message? – Yes, Maria, please tell him I returned his call. And tell him I want to see him. He knows my phone. He can call any time. – I’ll make sure he takes the message. – Thank you.
Bob, got some change? I need make a call to Lucy. – Sure.
Exercise 2. Engage your classmates in short conversations using Exercise 1 as a model.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 88-89 into Ukrainian (Russian).
Exercise 2. Use the following combinations of words in sentences of your own. Use either Active or Passive form.
To make an approach, to make calculations, to make a conclusion, to make a contribution (to), to make a discovery, to make an experiment, to make an impression, to make an investigation, to make a list, to make measurements, to make a mistake, to make a suggestion, to make a summary, to make use (of).
Lesson 7
ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ
Listen to the text while reading. Discuss it with your classmates using the questions after the text.
Contact with electrical current is potentially fatal. Electricity passing through the body can cause injury to the skin and internal organs. If electricity passes through the heart, the heart muscle may be damaged and the heart’s rhythm interrupted, leading to cardiac arrest. The signs and symptoms of electric shock include tingling, burns on the skin where the current entered or exited, muscle pain, headache, loss of consciousness, irregular breathing or lack of breathing, and cardiac arrest. The severity of the injury depends on the strength of the electric current and the path the current takes through the body. The person providing first aid to a victim of electric shock should not touch the individual’s body until the source of the shock is turned off. Because of the potential for internal injuries, victims of electrical injury should not be moved unless they are in immediate danger. The first-aid provider should monitor the victim for symptoms of shock. If the victim has stopped breathing and has no pulse, CPR should be performed after the airway, breathing, and circulation have been checked. When the victim’s vital signs are stable, the site of the burn should be treated using the same methods used for other burns.
CPR = cardiopulmonary resuscitation – штучне дихання
to loose consciousness – втрачати свідомість
cardiac arrest – зупинка серця
tingling – дрижання
Do you agree with all the facts stated in the text?
What does the harmful action of an electric current depend on?
How is it possible to protect human body against electric current?
Why grounding of metal parts of electric instruments is important?
What are the symptoms of electric shock?
What is the first aid in a case of electric shock?
Граматичні відомості
Особливості пасивного стану в англійській мові
Суттєвою відмінністю використання пасивного стану в англійській мові у порівнянні з українською є більш широкі можливості утворення пасивних конструкцій, аналогів яким в українській мові нема.
Як приклад, розглянемо речення у активному стані, в якому в підмета є не один, а два додатки:
|
ПідметSubject |
Дієслово Verb |
Непрямий додаток Indirect Object |
Прямий додаток Direct Object |
|
He Він |
told сказав |
me мені |
the news. новину. |
В українській мові ми можемо створити лише одне пасивне речення з відповідним змістом, в якому як підмет використовується прямий додаток “новина” (відповідає на питання “що?”):
Мені була розказана новина (ним). The news was told me (by him).
Однак в англійській мові і непрямий додаток “me”, який відповідає на питання “whom/кому?”, може виконувати роль підмета у пасивному реченні:
I was told the news (by him).
До речі, така конструкція, де особа стоїть на першому місці, значно більш характерна та вживана в англійській мові, ніж “The news was told me”. В українській мові подібних зворотів нема.
Звичайно, подібні конструкції вживаються з іншими часами англійської мови, наприклад:
We are being given a new course right now.
We have just been given a new course.
Ще один приклад пасивних конструкцій англійської мови, які неможливі в українській мові, це структури з неперехідними дієсловами та прийменниковими непрямими додатками, що відповідають на питання типу “на кого?”, “над ким?, “для кого?” і т. д. Декілька прикладів:
He was sent for. За ним послали.
The professor was listened to attentively. Професора уважно слухали.
This article is often referred to. На цю статтю часто посилаються.
The new bestseller is very much spoken of. Про новий бестселер дуже багато говорять.
Речення такого типу перекладаються українською мовою зворотами з невизначеною особою, як показано вище.
Як бачимо, у другому з наведених прикладів використовується дієслово слухати (to listen). В англійській мові це дієслово неперехідне, тобто у активному стані воно вимагає прямого доповнення і потребує наступного прийменника “to”. В українському перекладі дієслово слухати використовується як перехідне, тобто без прийменника.
Навпаки, деякі перехідні англійські дієслова відповідають неперехідним українським, наприклад:
|
to answer (somebody) to follow (something) to join (someone) to watch (somebody) |
відповідати (на щось) слідувати (за кимсь) приєднуватись (до когось) спостерігати (за кимсь) |
Згідно з цим, англійські пасивні конструкції з такими дієсловами передаються зворотами без використання пасивного стану, наприклад:
Your help is needed. – Потрібна ваша допомога.
They were soon joined by their friends. – Невдовзі до них приєднались друзі.
The reaction is followed by an explosion. – Реакція супроводжується вибухом.
Звороти з використанням пасивних конструкцій
Для англійської мови надзвичайно характерне використання конструкцій з формальним підметом it. Зокрема зворот it з формою пасивного стану часто використовується з дієсловами to report, to know, to say, to believe, etc., відповідаючи зворотам української мови з невизначеною особою:
It is reported that new engine’s performance exceeded our expectations.
Повідомляють, що характеристики нового двигуна перевищили наші очікування.
It is well-known that Ukraine has rich deposits of manganese ore.
Добре відомо, що Україна має багаті родовища марганцевої руди.
За наявністю у подібних зворотах слова as (як) займенник it зникає:
As is believed the conference members will arrive in Kyiv on Monday.
Як вважають, учасники конференції прибудуть до Києва у понеділок.
Згадані звороти, що є складнопідрядними реченнями, часто замінюються простими реченнями з використанням інфінітива, які мають такий самий зміст:
New engine’s performance is reported to exceed our expectation.
They are believed to arrive in Kyiv on Monday.
Більш докладно подібні звороти будуть розглянуті далі у розділі, присвяченому інфінітивним конструкціям.
Exercise 1. Use Passive Voice in the following sentences.
The police have given him a ticket for driving recklessly. – He has been given a ticket for driving recklessly.
They pay him twice a month. – He _____________________.
My colleagues showed me some interesting materials. – I ______________________.
Some teachers are teaching him English at school. – He _______________________.
We can depend on this man. – This man ______________________.
They agreed upon the terms of the contract. – The terms _____________________.
The personal of the hospital well take care of patients. – The patients _____________.
They didn’t ask me about this. – I ___________________.
They will send you your test results as soon as possible. – You _________________.
Exercise 2. Translate from Ukrainian into English.
Над ним сміялися
Її слухали неуважно.
Нам прочитають цю лекцію до того, як він поїде з Києва.
Його щойно відпустили. (to release)
Зараз нам читають новий курс.
Коли він прийшов, нам показували новий фільм.
Комунікативна практика
Поради
Існує декілька способів вираження поради. Найпростіший – це пряма порада з використанням модальних дієслів should, would, ought (to):
You’d better… You should … You ought to …
Однак вважається, що в багатьох ситуаціях пряма порада може здатися недостатньо ввічливою, тому в англійській мові частіше використовуються непрямі поради:
I believe it might be a good idea to …
Don’t you think it would be better …
If I were you I’d …
Exercise 1. Listen to the following conversation, identify the sentences with advice.
A: What seems to be the trouble?
B: My computer doesn’t work properly. I can’t run my program and colours on the screen look unusual.
A: Is any antivirus program installed on your computer?
B: Unfortunately I didn’t do it. I don’t have enough experience in computer technologies.
A: You don’t? If I were you I’d take some course for beginners. Nowadays if you are working with Internet you never know when you’ll have an emergency.
B: Well, anyway, what can I do right now?
A: Mm … Let me see … What did you do with your computer last time?
B: I played a new game …
A: Oh why don’t you try to restart the system? Sometimes it works.
B: Well, wait a minute … Oh, great! It works! Thanks a lot.
A: Don’t mention it.
Exercise 2. Discuss possibilities where would you advise your classmate to spend his/her vacations.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).
Since the late 20th century the most developed world countries became keenly aware of their dependence on foreign oil and other fossil fuels. Exploitation of solar power is a feasible alternative to fossil-based energy sources. Electricity can be generated by a variety of technologies that ultimately depend on the effects of solar radiation. Windmills and waterfalls (themselves very old sources of mechanical energy) can be used to turn turbines to generate electricity. The energies of wind and falling water are considered forms of solar energy, because the Sun’s heating power creates wind and replenishes the water in rivers and streams. Most existing windmill installations are relatively small, containing ten or more windmills in a grid configuration that takes advantage of wind shifts. In contrast, most electricity from hydroelectric installations comes from giant dams. Large-scale hydroelectric projects are still being pursued in many developing countries. The simplest form of solar-powered electricity generation is the use of an array of collectors that heat water to produce steam to turn a turbine. Several of these facilities are in existence.
Other sources of Sun-derived electricity involve high-technology options that remain unproven commercially on a large scale. Photovoltaic cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, are currently being used for remote locations to power orbiting space satellites, local power plants, and irrigation pumps. Progress is needed to lower costs before widespread use of photovoltaic cells is possible. The commercial development of still other methods seems far in the future. Ocean thermal conversion (OTC) generates electricity on offshore platforms; a turbine is turned by the power generated when cold seawater moves from great depths up to a warm surface. Also still highly speculative is the notion of using space satellites to beam electricity via microwaves down to Earth.
Exercise 2. Make notes about different possibilities to overcome world energy crisis. Be ready to discuss modern researches in a field of renewable energy sources taking into account issues of environmental pollution and global warming. Prepare short oral reports (around 5 minutes) for these topics.
Lesson 8
Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи
Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to different applications of electricity in industry and at home.
Вправи для самостійної роботи
Нижче наведені типові приклади завдань, що можуть бути використані під час тренування перед письмовим тестом.
Exercise 1. Insert the proper forms of the verbs in brackets. Add auxiliary or/and modal verb if necessary.
The program _____ (already /write) by him.
This textbook ____ (write) last year by Prof Jones.
I ___ (never/read) this book.
I _______ (brake) this pencil yesterday.
I ________(read) the newspaper when he came in.
Meet me at five o’clock. I’ll _____ (look out) for you.
If the weather _______(be fine) tomorrow we will go to the park.
Exercise 2. Change the Active to the Passive if possible.
We may obtain a supply of current from various kinds of voltaic cells.
The operators calibrate the meter to read their indications.
Series and parallel circuits are the most important from the practical point of view.
Students asked the teacher to explain the math expression.
He arrives tomorrow at 6 a.m.
The movement of the magnetic field induces an alternating current in the secondary coil.
These effects depend on the frequency of the current.
Exercise 3. Change the Passive to the Active Voice without changing of meaning.
The production of heat by an electric current is widely used.
Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes.
This book is often referred to.
The students had been examined for two hours when he came.
Don’t forget that the plan will be discussed tomorrow at 5 p.m. when you will be driving to Chicago.
These effects depend on the frequency of the current and on the design of the circuit, and together they are called reactance.
They were granted a loan.
Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps in sentences using the terms of module 2.
The electric current through a _____________ circuit is distributed among the branches according to the resistances of the branches.
An __________ current is an electric current that changes direction at regular intervals.
Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the __________ of the conductor through which it passes.
Current sources may be arranged in parallel by connecting all the positive ___________ together and all the negative terminals together.
There are many _________ of electric current other than generators and electrolytic _________.
A good conductor is one that has low _________.
Substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them are called ________, non-conductors, or dielectrics.
Exercise 5. Paraphrase/give the synonyms to the words below.
Example: Electric current – a flow of charges.
Alternating current.
Resistance.
Electric circuit.
Voltmeter.
Generator.
Grounding.
Positive charge.
Exercise 6. Correct grammar mistakes in the following sentences. Each sentence has at least one mistake.
The part of an electric circuit other than the source of electric current called the load.
Like direct current, alternating current have hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes.
The alternating current supply the greatest part of the electric power for industry today.
I will be give you an answer in a week.
I was driven home yesterday when I saw her.
If the weather will be fine we will go to the park.
A great number of students has attending the lecture.
Exercise 7. Use the following words in sentences in your own:
cell, circuit, nucleus, coil, meter, ammeter, insulator.