34.Spelling changes

They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct sound. ME spelling

had many changes. The introduction of printing & the spread of books

perpetuated the written forms of the words reproduced from the manuscripts.

The use of double conso-ts became less frequent, double letters were sometimes

employed to show that the preceding vowel was short. Late 17^th-18^th had a

stabilizing effect on the development of eng. spelling. Innovations are a few

new digraphs which were adopted with borrowed words, such as –ph-ps-NE

photograph; g- genre. ModE spelling shows the pronunciation of words in

late 14-15^th . Mod spelling is conventional & conservative, but seldom phonetic.

35.Root- stem declension

In early OE the root-vowel in some forms was subjected to phonetic changes,

if the grammatical changes contained the sound [i] the vowel was narrowed. After the ending was dropped the mutated vowel turned out to be the only marker of

the form. The interchange of root-vowels had turned into a regular means of form-

building used similarly with inlexions. This peculiarity of the root-stems is of

considerable consequence for later history & has left traces in ModE.

36.The rise of –do- forms.

In ME the verb -don- used to express a causative meaning. Do- in poetry. In the 16-17^th cen-y the periphrases with –do used in all types of sentences. In 17^th cent-y

-do was found in negative sente-s & questions, simple forms in affirmative. In the 18^th the periphrases with do fell –it made the statement emphatic.-------done-anomal verb(gan,willan,can);появл с-ма времен(не только 2 вр)появл необх добавить что-то, чтобы сущ форма SPO-добавили done

37. The rise of the future forms

In OE there was no form of the future tense. In ME(after 12cent) the use of modal phrases:shall became common.- shall+ inf.- One of early instances of shall- with a weakened modal meaning is found in the early ME poem “ORMULUM”. In the

age of Shakespeare shall & will occurred in free variations.In 14&15th cent will increases its frequency&inNE it becomes another auxiliary for the future.Todays rules for shall/will depending on person were introduced in 17th cent(todays drop of shall-the tendency to simplification)

38.Grammar agreement & government in oe

OE was a synthetic or inflected type of lan-ge. It showed the relations b/n words

& expressed gramm. meaning. Gram. endings were the principal form-building,

were used alone, but could occur in combinations with other meaning. The parts

of speech: the noun, the adj-e, the pronoun, the verb, numeral, preposition, adverb.

5 gramm. categories: number, case, gender, degrees of comparison. The noun -2 cat. Number & case; adj-e, the max the max number 5; verbal categories –mood

& tense, mood-indicative, imperative, subjunctive, tense-past, present.

39. The non-finite forms:

The infinitive & the participle. The inf. had no verbal. gram. cat. Being a

Verbal noun by origin it had a sort of reduced case system: 2 forms which roughly

corresponded to the nom. & the dat. cases of nouns. The part-e was a kind of verbal adj- e which was characterized by certain verbal features. Part-e 1(present)

was opposed to part-e 2 (past).Though voice & tence distinctions; it was active & expressed present or simultaneous process & qualities, part-e 2 expressed states &

qualities resulting from past action & was contrasted to part-e 1 as passive to active. Part.1 was formed with the help of suffix-ende, part 2 had stem of its own.

It was commonly marked by the prefix-ge.bindan-bindende-zebundan. Part-s were declined as weak & strong & agreed with nouns in number, gender, case.