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The term «lexicology» is of Greek origin / from «lexis» - «word» and «logos» - «science». Lexicology is the part of linguistics, which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.

The term «vocabulary» is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.

The term «word» denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a language, which can stand alone as a complete utterance.

The term «word-group» denotes a group of words which exists in the language as a ready-made unit, has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical function, e.g. the word-group «as loose as a goose» means «clumsy» and is used in a sentence as a predicative / He is as loose as a goose/.

Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their sound form and meaning. In this case it is called historical lexicology.

Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics – the science of language. The literal meaning of the term “lexicology” is “the science of the word”. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims & methods of scientific research. Its basic task – being a study & systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development & its current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological units & morphemes, which make up words.

Distinction is made between GENERAL LEXICOLOGY & SPECIAL LEXICOLOGY. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.).

Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics: phonetics, for example, investigates the phonetic structure of language & is concerned with the study of the outer sound-form of the word. Grammar is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after which words are combined into word-groups & sentences. There is also a close relationship between lexicology & stylistics, which is concerned with a study of a nature, functions & styles of languages.

Lexicology – 'science of the word', a branch of linguistics, which basic task is a study and systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use.

general lexicology – part of general linguistics, is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language;

special lexicology – the lexicology of a particular language, i.e. the study and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units, primarily words as the main units of language.; special lexicology is based on the principles worked out and laid down by general lexicology, a general theory of vocabulary. Special lexicology employs synchronic (q.v.) and diachronic (q.v.) approaches:

- special descriptive lexicology (synchronic lexicology) – deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time

- special historical lexicology (diachronic lexicology) – deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time.

Lexicology presents a wide area of knowledge.

Historical lexicology deals with the historic change of words in the course of lang. development.

Comparative lexicology studies closely relative languages from the point of view of their identity and differentiation.

Contrastive - both relative and unrelative languages establishes differences and similarity.

Applied lexicology - translation, lexicography, pragmatics of speech.

Lexicology investigates various meaning relations existing in the lang., how the lexicon words to provide and support meaningful communication.

Each word is a part of entire system language vocabulary. Every item of a language stands closely with 2 other items.

the sintagmatic level

the paradygmatic level.

On the sintagmatic level the semantic structure of a word is analyzed in it’s linear relationships with neighbouring words.

On the paradigmatic level - relationship with other words in the vocabulary system: synonyms, polysemantic words, antonyms.

The word as the basic unit of the language.

Paradigmatic & syntagmatic relations of words.

Word – the basic unit of language, directly corresponds to the object of thought (referent) – which is a generalized reverberation of a certain 'slice', 'piece' of objective reality – and by immediately referring to it names the thing meant.

Typology of words:

Morphologically we distinguish between:

- monomorphemic w. (root w.);

- polymorphemic w. (derivatives, compounds, derivational compounds – q.v.).

Semantically:

- monosemantic w. – w., having only one lexical meaning and denoting, accordingly, one concept;

- polysemantic w. – words having several meanings, i.e. w. having several meanings, thus denoting a whole set of related concepts grouped according to the national peculiarities of a given language.

Syntactically:

- categorematic w. (notional w., lexical w., content w.) – q.v.;

- syncategorematic w. (form-w., structural, grammatical, syntactic, functional w.) – q.v.;

Stylistically:

- neutral w.;

- elevated (bookish) w.;

- colloquial w. (q.v.);

- substandard w.

Etymologically:

- native w. – q.v.;

- borrowed w. (borrowings) – q.v.;

- hybrids – q.v.;

- international w. (interonyms) – q.v.;

- dictionary w.

- evaluative w.

- key-words;

- object w.;

- occasional w. (nonce-w., ephemeral w.) – w., which can not be considered as permanent members of the word-stock: although they are, as a rule, formed after existing patterns, they are not characterized by general currency but are individual innovations introduced for a special occasion.

–potential w. – a derivatives or a compound which do not actually exist (i.e. have not appeared in text), but which can be produced at any moment in accordance with the productive word-forming patterns of the language (e.g. singable, smokable, etc.).

- register sensitive ws. – ws. used in this or that register only.

Words:

Root – derivatives

neutral – stylistically marked

native – borrowed

transparent – opaque

full – forms (gram. elements)

WORD - MEANING

Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner aspect (its meaning) . Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language. E.g. the word «temple» may denote «a part of a human head» and «a large church» In such cases we have homonyms. One and the same word in different syntactical relations can develop different meanings, e.g. the verb «treat» in sentences:

a) He treated my words as a joke.

b) The book treats of poetry.

c) They treated me to sweets.

d) He treats his son cruelly.

In all these sentences the verb «treat» has different meanings and we can speak about polysemy.

On the other hand, one and the same meaning can be expressed by different sound forms, e.g. «pilot» , and «airman», «horror» and «terror». In such cases we have synonyms.

Both the meaning and the sound can develop in the course of time independently. E.g. the Old English /luvian/ is pronounced /l^v / in Modern English. On the other hand, «board» primariliy means « a piece of wood sawn thin» It has developed the meanings: a table, a board of a ship, a stage, a council etc.

Syntagmatics – linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language.

Paradigmatics – 1) associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language as distinct from linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech (syntagmatics); relation of units in absentia (e.g. synonymic, antonymic relationships); 2) an approach to language when the elements of its system are regarded as associated units joined by oppositional relationship.

Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases the inflexion is zero), e.g. «seldom», «chairs», «longer», «asked».

Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inlexion, e.g. «deristricted», «unemployed».

Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, e.g. «baby-moons», «wait-and-see (policy)».

Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, e.g. «middle-of-the-roaders», «job-hopper».

When speaking about the structure of words stems also should be mentioned. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem «hop» can be found in the words: «hop», «hops», «hopped», «hopping». The stem «hippie» can be found in the words: «hippie», «hippies», «hippie’s», «hippies’». The stem «job-hop» can be found in the words : «job-hop», «job-hops», «job-hopped», «job-hopping».

So stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and compound-derived. Stems have not only the lexical meaning but also grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning, they can be noun stems («girl» in the adjective «girlish»), adjective stems («girlish» in the noun «girlishness»), verb stems («expell» in the noun «expellee») etc. They differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words.

Sometimes it is rather difficult to distinguish between simple and derived words, especially in the cases of phonetic borrowings from other languages and of native words with blocked (unique) root morphemes, e.g. «perestroika», «cranberry», «absence» etc.

Plato’s work: words are names or labels for things.

Aristotle: the smallest significant unit of speech.

Modern linguists:

Referential approach (psychological)

The model is the result of attempts to find relations between words and things.

C.Ogden and I.Richards (this triangle):

Is represented by Meaning: an animal kept as a pet

Name:”dog” is named by Referent: a real dog

Symbol- word

Referent- thing

Reference- meaning

We’re able to use a word when this triangle is formed in our brain, when we know what object (concept) this word denotes.

Выготский: “a word is a microcosm of human conscienceness”

Words are different.

H. Sweet distinguished between full words (words with an independent meaning and form words which are grammatical elements. (the same Aristotel)

Tree if

Sing if

Blue of

Gently and

The words in 1-st column

Second- has no independent meaning proper. They are of structural function (they contribute to the meaning of the whole phrase when they are used in conjunction with other words)/ This division is not strict enough. Sometimes form words can receive full semantic status even if they are used in complete isolation.

Sometimes it’s easy to understand the meaning of a words and it’s parts.

S. Ullman distinguishes between transparent and opaque words.

T. words are always motivated.

O. words are conventional words.

This distinguish goes back to the Greeks.

Motivation is the relationship existing between the phonemes or morphemic composition ans structural pattern of a word on the one hand and it’s meaning oh the other hand.

3 types of M.:

1.phonetical

2.morphological

3.semantic

When there us a certain similarity between the sounds of a word and the sounds referred to by the meaning of a word – phonetical.

Звукоподражательные слова (onomatopoeic):

Bang

Whistle

Ding-dong …etc.

Morphological- it’s possible to guess the meaning of a word from it’s parts.

(in newly coined words)

Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning of the same word.

Foot- a lower part of smth; part of a body

The foot of the mountain.

Each word has a hard core of meaning, which stable, but can’t be modified by the context within certain limits.

2 types of context:

linguistic (verbal)

extralinguistic

L. the environment in which the word occurs as for the extra L. It consists of the entire cultural background against which we said this or that event.

-> The meaning of a word can change depending on the environment.

Instead of the term “word» some linguists prefer the terms “lexical unit”, “lexical item” or “lexeme” . “Word” causes much confusion because it’s used orthographically, grammatically and lexically.

No agreement between the scholars in terminology.

Meaning – the reverberation in the human consciousness of an object, a quality of extralinguistic reality (a phenomenon, a relationship, a quality, a process), which becomes a fact of language because of its constant indissoluble association with a definite linguistic expression. Meaning conveyed by a speaker is the speaker's communicative intent in using an expression, even if that use departs from the expression's meaning. Accordingly, any discussion of m. should distinguish speaker's m. from linguistic m. – See Sense.

There exist a number of definitions of meaning:

- a reciprocal relation between name and sense, which enables them to call up one another (St.Ullmann);

- function in a context. Meaning, then, we use the whole complex of functions which a linguistic form may have (J.R.Firth);

- a function of the descriptions at all levels (M.A.K.Halliday) and many others.

Vinogradov: the meaning of a word can be:

1. Nominative.

2. Nominative- derivative

3. Collegationally and collocationally conditioned.

4. Phraseologically bound.

1. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word, which refers to objects of extra linguistic reality in a direct way and reflects their actual relations.

2. Nominative-Derivative meaning comes into being when the word is “stretched out” semantically to cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena.

When the speaker uses the word metaphorically he extends it’s content.

The metaphorical use is based on certain similarities observed by the speaker.

Sweet not only taste, but pleasant, attractive

Sweet face, voice, little baby.

Here we speak

Different meaning- the identity of the word remains intact, because the difference in meaning is not great enough to split the word into 2 different units.

When the speaker observes similarities between the objects, the semantic content of a word is made elastic to be stretched out and cover new bits of reality.

Metaphoric meanings are registered in dictionaries.

Such meanings are often poetically present in the semantic structure of the word.

Some words (adj-s) are characterized by broad meaningness, it allows them to develop new meanings.

cool, chilly, frozen, hot

eyes were frozen with terror

For parts of the body:

Hand- рука, стрелка часов face-лицо, циферблат часов (of a clock)

Foot- нога, подножие горы leg- нога, ножка стула

Tongue-язык, языки пламени eye-глаз, ушко иголки (~of a needle)

If nominative meaning is a direct meaning: Nominative-Derivative meaning is a transferred meaning.

3. Collegiationally and collocationally conditioned meanings are not free, but bound.

a. Collegationally conditioned meaning is determined by morphosyntactic combinability of words. Some meanings are realized only without a given morphosyntactic pattern (colligation)

to tell- рассказать, сказать

In passive constructions means to order/to direct

You must do what you’re told.

To carry- нести

In passive construction= to accept

The amendment to the bill was carried.

b. Collocationally conditioned meaning is determined by lexical- phraseological combinality of words.

There are meaning which depend on the word association with other words (collocation)

A herd of cows, a flock of sheep

Collocation is used here as a typical behaviour of a word in speech.

Firth: U shall know a virt by the company he keeps.

Mccarthy: Collocation is a marriage contract between words; some words are more firmly married to each other than others.

Certain meanings belong only to a given collocation, q word is habitually associated with another word to form a natural sounding combinations.

4. Phraseologically bound meaning.

Collocations should be distinguished from idioms and phraseological units.

Idioms and phraseological units are devoid of referential meanings.

The meanings of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the idiomatic expression.

to kick the bucket = to die

This idiom is opaque (непрозрачный)

To pass the buck = to pass the responsibility

This idiom is semiopaque.

To see the light = to understand

This idiom is transparent.

The word combimation is literal in meaning, because its degree of idiomatic is low it’s called phraseological unit.

Typology of ms.:

- actual m. – opp. to virtual (systemic) m., actualized in speech, specified by linguistic and situational context;

- associative m. – similar to connotation (q.v.), weak implication, a conceptual entity to which the systemic m. of a given word merely hints, indirectly implies, which is triggered by association;

- bound m. – actualised by a word in a given phrase or context, predetermined by semantic or morphosyntactic combinability (or collocationally and colligationally bound)

- broad m. – resulting from generalization of m. (q.v.), when a word develops the broadest referential capacity possible (e.g. way. thing, body, do, have); further stage is deemantization and loss of purely lexical m., transformation of a lexical unit into a grammatical morpheme

- categorial m. – part-of-speech meaning;

- cognitive m. – a) same as conceptual or denotative or nominative or main meaning; b) the conceptual core, significative part of m. reflecting essential features of the referent conceptualised by our cognition; distinct from pragmatic m.;

- colligationally and collocationally conditioned m. (Acad. V.V. Vinogradov's term) – are not 'free' but 'bound' ones in the sense that they are determined by morphosyntactic and lexical-phraseological combinability. Some meanings are realised only within a given morpho-syntactic pattern (colligation), e.g. the verb to tell when used in a passive construction displays its colligationally conditioned meaning 'to order, to direct – You must do what you are told'. Similarly, there are meanings which depend on the word's association with other lexical units (collocation). Here the idiom principle is the leading one because the co-occurrence range of the word is determined not only by its meaning, but also, to a great extent, by the conventions of its use: e.g. milk is never rancid, but sour (see secondary signification). The verb to raise acquires a collocationally bound meaning ('to grow plants' or 'keep animals') when used in combinations, such as raise wheat/ pigs / cattle. When combine with the nouns hopes / consciousness / awareness, its meaning changes: The conference is intended to raise people's awareness of Aids. – See bound m.

- conceptual m. - same as cognitive or denotative or nominative or main meaning;

- connotative (connotational) m. – See Connotation

- contentional m. – reflects the structure of essential features of a notion, name.

- contextual (contextually-bound) m. – triggered/brought in by the contextual (both verbal and non-verbal) environment of the word; acquired on a definite occasion only;

- core m. – same as cognitive or denotative or nominative or main meaning;

- derived (derivational) m.

- direct m. – the main meaning of the word which appears in the act of primary semiosis; opp. to transferred (derived, figurative) m. which appears as a result of semantic derivation/semantic development processes (q.v.) and secondary nomination (q.v.).

- dynamic m. – actually, any m. is characterized by certain dynamism – ability to change either synchronically or diachronically, so that it would not be correct to discriminate between systemic (dictionary, virtual) m. as being static and speech (actual, actualized) m. as dynamic, although in a current speech event m. is necessarily subject to contextual (both linguistic and extralinguistic) influence hence actual is more dynamic than virtual/systemic m.;

- encyclopaedic m. – opp. to naive m. (q.v.), conveys the exhaustive information about an object, event or phenomenon, expert's knowledge of the denotatum which only professionals possess (cf. the meaning of the word 'atom' as understood by a physicist and by a actress). Lexical m. does not cover the e.m., actually, lexical m. has nothing to do with the e.m. To understand the m. of the word 'salt' you are not obligatorily to be an expert in chemistry and remember that NaCl is the chemical formula for salt and 'salts' are quite peculiar chemical substances not necessarily intended for cooking purposes.

- etymological m. – original m. of a word, which later on underwent semantic changes;

- expressive m

- extensional m. – a number of denotata to which a certain name refers to.

- further m. – m. or meanings within the prospective scope of semantic changes (only vaguely) predetermined by the current semantics of the word, the prospective sphere of its semantic variation;

- figurative m.

- free m. – nominative m. (q.v.) can be regarded as 'free' as distinct from the collocational and colligational meanings as bound (q.v.) ones;

- functional m. – grammatical meaning of a word (word-like unit) as an element of syntax, predetermined by its categorial (q.v.), subcategorial and individual lexical m.;

- generic m. – reflection in lexical m. of a generic concept, concept of the higher level of abstraction;

- grammatical m. – m. of a grammatical form of a word;

- idiomatic m. – m., actualized within a certain idiomatic expression only, idiomatically bound m.;

- lexical m. – m. of a lexical unit, comprises categorial m., subcategorial m. and individual m. of a lexeme; reflects a certain part of a corresponding concept on the level of language;

- lexico-grammatical m. – same as categorial m. (q.v.), part-of-speech m.;

- main m. – See nominative m;

- naive m. – lexical m. as represented in the mind of a common native speaker, not an expert in the field which includes the denotatum of the word – see encyclopaedic m.

- next m. – m. or meanings within the actual scope of semantic derivation of a lexeme, easily predetermined or expected by the core semantics (lexical prototype) of the word;

- nominative m. – also basic, main, direct, conceptual, cognitive m. of the word, referring to objects, phenomena, actions and qualities in extralinguistic reality (referent) and reflecting their general understanding by the speaker (can be correlated with referential, denotative, descriptive, factual, objective m.); realization of the word's nominative capacity (to serve as a name for some extralinguistic entity). The n.m. also has the following 'free' authentic equivalents in English: essential, central, domain, primary, focal, pivotal, common, usual – which are mostly used to avoid repetition in speech and not as technical terms;

- nominative-derivative m. – comes into being when the word is 'stretched out' semantically as a result of semantic derivation to cover new facts and phenomena of extralinguistic reality

- original m. – = etymological m.

- phraseological m. (phraseologically bound meaning) – also idiomatic m. (q.v.) the meaning which is realised only in some phrases and belongs only to a given collocation – when a word is habitually associated together with another word to form a 'natural-sounding' combination: e.g. to raise becomes part of the phrase meaning 'to show surprise' in to raise one's eyebrows (at smb.)

- pragmatic m. – semantic component of lexical m. (as distinct from conceptual m.) which reflects the attitudes, emotions of the speakers (either personal or communal), so it can be regarded a correlative term to connotation (q.v.);

- primary m. – which to the greatest degree is dependent upon or conditioned by its paradigmatic links, while such meanings as display a greater degree of syntagmatic ties are secondary;

- referential m.

- secondary m.

- significative m.

- situational m.

- specific m. – opp. to generic m. (q.v.), m. of a specific term, correlates with the specific concept, a subordinate one in the hierarchical taxonomy;

- static m. – opp. to dynamic m. (q.v.)

- usual m. – m., accepted by the language-speaking community, fixed in dictionaries, reproduced in speech actualizations of the word;

- virtual m. - as opp. to actual m., systemic (fixed in dictionaries) m.