19. Methods of phonological analysis.

The aim — identification of the phonemes and finding out the patterns of relationship and how sounds are grouped.

Each language has different number of phonemes and allophones.

Sounds affect the meaning or not (dark and light l)

Semantic method

Based on the rule that phonemes can distinguish word and morphemes when opposed to one another; great significance to meaning.

Commutation test: minimal pair of words and their grammatical forms. (pin — bin, but pit — spit)

System of oppositions, in at least one position in at least one minimal pair.

Minimal pair — a pair of words or morphemes that are differenciated by only one phoneme in the same position.

Should be opposed in word-initial, -medial and –final positions

Kinds of oppositions: single, double and triple

+ distributional method

20. Informational style

Informational dialogues

Factors for dialogue-monologue dichotomy:

1. the subject matter of a talk, its randomness

2. inexplicitness of the speech

3. incompleteness of utterances

4. the redundancy of vocal expression

Types of dialogues:

• specialized talks on serious subject matters

• discussions of serious problems

• debates

• everyday conversations

They all are based on degree of seriousness of the subject matter and formality of the occasion

• D. — is a coordinated simultaneous speech of 2 part.

• Attention-getting functions

• Hesitation

• + non-verbal communication

• Lexical and grammatical level (errors)

• Introductions, afterthoughts

• Loosely coordinated clauses

Press-reporting and broadcasting

Complicated and is a strong ideological weapon.

Because of the function (to inform, to present) neutral and objective reporting. Timbre: unemotional, dispassionate, reserved, assured.

Prosodic features: loudness, pauses, rate, rhythm.

21. Conversational style

Informal + silent language

Incompleteness, lack or planning, non-fluency, mistakes in grammar, vocabulary, varied tempo, chaotic intonation.

! phone calls vs formal !

22. The prosodic constituters of intonation (pitch, loudness, tempo)

"Intonation is the soul of a language while the pronunciation of its sounds is its body" [Kingdon 1972: xiii].

D.Crystal arranged all the components of intonation into a list (starting from the most relevant component to the least): speech melody (or pitch movement), phrasal stress, tempo, rhythm, tambre (or timbre)

Prosody: pitch, loudness and tempo.

Pitch correlates with the fundamental frequency of the vibration of the vocal cords (i.e. perception of the frequency of repeated pressures on the ear-drum).

Loudness correlates with the amplitude of vibrations of vocal cords.

Tempo correlates with time during which a speech unit lasts.

The system of terminal tones in English

1. Static or level tones (produced by keeping the vocal cords at a constant tension (thus giving a tone of unvarying pitch). Such tones are used to give emphasis or prominence to a word or syllable without adding any special feeling or meaning to it.

2. Kinetic or moving tones (Such tones express the speaker's feelings in addition to giving prominence.

Intonation functions: accentual, indexical, communicative (grammatical), modal (attitudinal), contextual, stylistic