4. Moscow Phonological School

The linguists of the Moscow Phonological School represent the morphological approach to the problem of establishing the phonemic status of a sound in neutral position.

According to this approach, to establish the status of a sound in a phonologically neutral position, one should find an allomorph of the same morpheme in which the phoneme under question occurs in the strong position (i.e. in which it retains all its DFs).

The Moscow linguists are of the opinion that interchange of sounds shows close connection between Phonetics (the science of the sound system) and Morphology (which studies grammatical meanings).

Alternations take place in one and the same morpheme and reveal its phonemic structure. The phonemic content of the morpheme is constant according to the Moscow Phonological School.

The definition of the phoneme proposed by the Moscow Phonological School: "a functional phonetic unit represented by a row of positionally changing sounds".

The relations between different sounds representing one and the same phoneme are called interallophonic by the linguists of the Moscow School.

5. D. Jones and English phonological school

Daniel Jones is considered by many to be the greatest phonetician of the early 20th century.

The Outline of English Phonetics which followed in 1918 is the first truly comprehensive description of British Received Pronunciation, and indeed the first such description of the standard pronunciation of any language.

Jones became the first linguist in the western world to use the term phoneme in its current sense.

Jones employed a dual-parameter system of description based on the supposed height of the tongue arch together with the shape of the lips. This he reduced to a simple quadrilateral diagram which could be used to help visualize how vowels are articulated.

The International Phonetic Association still uses a version of Jones's model.

The physical view on the phoneme was introduced by D. Jones (1881-1967). In his book "An Outline of English Phonetics" the prominent British linguist defines the pho-neme as follows: "A phoneme may be described as a family of sounds consisting of an important sound of the language (generally the most frequently used member of that family) together with other related sounds which 'take its place' in particular sound sequences or under particular conditions of length, or stress or intonation".

6. Leningrad phonological school

The relations between different sounds representing one and the same phoneme are called interallophonic by the linguists of the Moscow School.

The same relations are defined as interphonemic by the representatives of the Leningrad Phonological School. The linguists of this trend support the autonomous approach to the phoneme: the autonomy of the phoneme and its independence from the morpheme (different allomorphs of a morpheme may differ from each other not only in their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition).

Many linguists share the approach to the phoneme status suggested by acad. L.V. Shcherba who defines the phoneme in the following way: "… in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of; in every language these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words; that is, they serve the purpose of social intercourse. It is these sound types that we have in mind when discussing speech sounds. Such sound types will be called phonemes. The various sounds that we actually utter and which are the individual representing of the universal (the phoneme), will be called phonemic variants"