SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Lesson 7.

Branches of law

Financialѝ lawѝ dealsѝ withѝ theѝ broadѝ rangeѝ ofѝ savingsѝ andѝ investmentsѝ productsѝinѝwhichѝindividuals,ѝbusinessesѝandѝinstitutionsѝholdѝtrillionsѝ ofѝdollars,ѝandѝtheѝservicesѝrelatedѝtoѝthoseѝproducts.ѝTheѝproductsѝandѝ servicesѝplayѝaѝvitalѝroleѝinѝtheѝworldѝeconomyѝandѝdirectlyѝemployѝmillionsѝofѝindividuals.ѝTheyѝinclude:ѝ

(1)ѝBankingѝ(whetherѝatѝbanks,ѝtrustѝcompanies,ѝsavingsѝbanks,ѝsavingsѝѝ

ѝѝѝѝѝѝѝandѝloansѝorѝcreditѝunions)ѝ

(2)ѝBrokerageѝservicesѝ(coveredѝunderѝBrokerѝDisputes)ѝ

(3)ѝCommoditiesѝ

(4)ѝConsumerѝlendersѝ(includingѝcreditѝcardѝissuers)ѝ

(5)ѝInsuranceѝincludingѝannuitiesѝ(whichѝisѝcoveredѝinѝaѝPracticeѝAreaѝѝ

ѝѝѝѝѝѝofѝitsѝown)ѝ

(6)ѝInvestmentѝadvisorsѝ

(7)ѝMortgagesѝ(whichѝareѝcoveredѝasѝaѝtopicѝinѝRealѝEstate)ѝ

(8)ѝMutualѝfundsѝ(aѝtypeѝofѝsecurity)ѝ

(9)ѝStocksѝandѝbondsѝ(coveredѝunderѝSecurities)ѝ

ѝ

Administrativeѝ lawѝ isѝ theѝ bodyѝ ofѝ lawѝ thatѝ governsѝ theѝ activitiesѝ ofѝ administrativeѝagenciesѝofѝgovernment.ѝGovernmentѝagencyѝactionѝcanѝ includeѝ rulemaking,ѝ adjudication,ѝ orѝ theѝ enforcementѝ ofѝ aѝ specificѝ regulatoryѝagenda.ѝAdministrativeѝlawѝisѝconsideredѝaѝbranchѝofѝpublicѝ law.ѝ Asѝ aѝ bodyѝ ofѝ law,ѝ administrativeѝ lawѝ dealsѝ withѝ theѝ decisionmakingѝofѝadministrativeѝunitsѝofѝgovernmentѝ(e.g.,ѝtribunals,ѝboardsѝorѝ commissions)ѝthatѝareѝpartѝofѝaѝnationalѝregulatoryѝschemeѝinѝsuchѝareasѝ asѝ policeѝ law,ѝ internationalѝ trade,ѝ manufacturing,ѝ theѝ environment,ѝ taxation,ѝbroadcasting,ѝimmigrationѝandѝtransport.ѝAdministrativeѝlawѝ expandedѝ greatlyѝ duringѝ theѝ twentiethѝ century,ѝ asѝ legislativeѝ bodiesѝ worldwideѝcreatedѝmoreѝgovernmentѝagenciesѝtoѝregulateѝtheѝincreasinglyѝcomplexѝsocial,ѝeconomicѝandѝpoliticalѝspheresѝofѝhumanѝinteraction.ѝ

Taxationѝdecisionsѝareѝtheѝdecisionsѝbasedѝonѝadministrativeѝlawѝthatѝ areѝmostѝoftenѝcontestedѝinѝcourts.ѝCivilѝlawѝcountriesѝoftenѝhaveѝspecializedѝcourts,ѝadministrativeѝcourtsѝthatѝreviewѝtheseѝdecisions.ѝ

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Constitutionalѝlawѝisѝtheѝstudyѝofѝbasicѝlawsѝofѝnationѝstatesѝandѝotherѝ politicalѝorganizations.ѝConstitutionsѝareѝtheѝframeworkѝforѝgovernmentѝ andѝmayѝlimitѝorѝdefineѝtheѝauthorityѝandѝprocedureѝofѝpoliticalѝbodiesѝ toѝexecuteѝnewѝlawsѝandѝregulations.ѝ Notѝallѝnationѝstatesѝhaveѝcodifiedѝconstitutions,ѝthoughѝallѝsuchѝstatesѝ haveѝaѝjusѝcommune,ѝorѝlawѝofѝtheѝland,ѝthatѝmayѝconsistѝofѝaѝvarietyѝofѝ imperativeѝ andѝ consensualѝ rules.ѝ Theseѝ mayѝ includeѝ customaryѝ law,ѝ conventions,ѝstatutoryѝlaw,ѝjudge-madeѝlawѝorѝinternationalѝrulesѝandѝ norms,ѝetc.ѝ

Constitutionalѝlawsѝmayѝoftenѝbeѝconsideredѝsecondѝorderѝrulemakingѝ orѝrulesѝaboutѝmakingѝrulesѝtoѝexerciseѝpower.ѝItѝgovernsѝtheѝrelationshipsѝbetweenѝtheѝjudiciary,ѝtheѝlegislatureѝandѝtheѝexecutiveѝwithѝtheѝ bodiesѝunderѝitsѝauthority.ѝOneѝofѝtheѝkeyѝtasksѝofѝconstitutionsѝwithinѝ thisѝcontextѝisѝtoѝindicateѝhierarchiesѝandѝrelationshipsѝofѝpower.ѝForѝ example,ѝinѝaѝunitaryѝstate,ѝtheѝconstitutionѝwillѝvestѝultimateѝauthorityѝ inѝ oneѝ centralѝ administrationѝ andѝ legislature,ѝ andѝ judiciary,ѝ thoughѝ thereѝisѝoftenѝaѝdelegationѝofѝpowerѝorѝauthorityѝtoѝlocalѝorѝmunicipalѝ authorities.ѝWhenѝaѝconstitutionѝestablishesѝaѝfederalѝstate,ѝitѝwillѝidentifyѝtheѝseveralѝlevelsѝofѝgovernmentѝcoexistingѝwithѝexclusiveѝorѝsharedѝ areasѝofѝjurisdictionѝoverѝlawmaking,ѝapplicationѝandѝenforcement.ѝ Humanѝrightsѝorѝcivilѝlibertiesѝformѝaѝcrucialѝpartѝofѝaѝcountry'sѝconstitutionѝandѝgovernѝtheѝrightsѝofѝtheѝindividualѝagainstѝtheѝstateѝѝ

Anotherѝmainѝfunctionѝofѝconstitutionsѝmayѝbeѝtoѝdescribeѝtheѝprocedureѝbyѝwhichѝparliamentsѝmayѝlegislate.ѝForѝinstance,ѝspecialѝmajoritiesѝmayѝbeѝrequiredѝtoѝalterѝtheѝconstitution.ѝInѝbicameralѝlegislatures,ѝ thereѝmayѝbeѝaѝprocessѝlaidѝoutѝforѝsecondѝorѝthirdѝreadingsѝofѝbillsѝbeforeѝaѝnewѝlawѝcanѝenterѝintoѝforce.ѝAlternatively,ѝthereѝmayѝfurtherѝbeѝ requirementsѝforѝmaximumѝtermsѝthatѝaѝgovernmentѝcanѝkeepѝpowerѝ beforeѝholdingѝanѝelection.ѝ

ѝ

Laborѝlawѝ(orѝemploymentѝlaw)ѝisѝtheѝbodyѝofѝlaws,ѝadministrativeѝrulings,ѝandѝprecedentsѝwhichѝaddressѝtheѝlegalѝrightsѝof,ѝandѝrestrictionsѝ on,ѝworkingѝpeopleѝandѝtheirѝorganizations.ѝAsѝsuch,ѝitѝmediatesѝmanyѝ aspectsѝofѝtheѝrelationshipѝbetweenѝtradeѝunions,ѝemployersѝandѝemployees.ѝѝ

Thereѝareѝtwoѝbroadѝcategoriesѝofѝlaborѝlaw.ѝFirst,ѝcollectiveѝlaborѝlawѝ relatesѝtoѝtheѝtripartiteѝrelationshipѝbetweenѝemployee,ѝemployerѝandѝ union.ѝSecond,ѝindividualѝlaborѝlawѝconcernsѝemployees»ѝrightsѝatѝworkѝ andѝthroughѝtheѝcontractѝforѝwork.ѝѝ

ѝ

ѝ

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CivilѝlawѝisѝaѝlegalѝsystemѝinspiredѝbyѝRomanѝlaw,ѝtheѝprimaryѝfeatureѝofѝ whichѝisѝthatѝlawsѝareѝwrittenѝintoѝaѝcollection,ѝcodified,ѝandѝnotѝdetermined,ѝasѝisѝcommonѝlaw,ѝbyѝjudges.ѝTheѝprincipleѝofѝcivilѝlawѝisѝtoѝprovideѝallѝcitizensѝwithѝanѝaccessibleѝandѝwrittenѝcollectionѝofѝtheѝlawsѝ whichѝapplyѝtoѝthemѝandѝwhichѝjudgesѝmustѝfollow.ѝItѝisѝtheѝmostѝprevalentѝandѝoldestѝsurvivingѝlegalѝsystemѝinѝtheѝworld.ѝTheѝprimaryѝsourceѝ ofѝlawѝisѝtheѝlawѝcode,ѝwhichѝisѝaѝgroupingѝofѝstatutesѝrelatingѝtoѝaѝparticularѝsubjectѝmatterѝandѝarrangedѝinѝclassifiedѝorder;ѝaѝcodeѝmayѝalsoѝ beѝdescribedѝasѝ«aѝsystematicѝcollectionѝofѝinterrelatedѝarticlesѝwrittenѝinѝ aѝterse,ѝstaccatoѝstyle.»ѝLawѝcodesѝareѝusuallyѝcreatedѝbyѝaѝlegislature«sѝ enactmentѝofѝaѝnewѝstatuteѝthatѝembodiesѝallѝtheѝoldѝstatutesѝrelatingѝtoѝ theѝsubjectѝandѝincludingѝchangesѝnecessitatedѝbyѝcourtѝdecisions.ѝInѝ someѝ cases,ѝ theѝ changeѝ resultsѝ inѝ aѝ newѝ statutoryѝ concept.ѝ Theѝ twoѝ otherѝmajorѝlegalѝsystemsѝinѝtheѝworldѝareѝcommonѝlawѝandѝIslamicѝlaw.ѝ AѝprominentѝexampleѝofѝcivilѝlawѝwouldѝbeѝtheѝCodeѝNapoleonѝ(1804),ѝ namedѝ afterѝ Frenchѝ emperorѝ Napoleonѝ Bonaparte.ѝ Theѝ Codeѝ comprisesѝthreeѝcomponents:ѝ«Persons,«ѝ«ThingsѝandѝDifferentѝFormsѝofѝ Ownership,«ѝ andѝ «Differentѝ Waysѝ ofѝ Acquiringѝ theѝ Ownershipѝ ofѝ Things.»ѝRatherѝthanѝaѝcatalogѝofѝjudicialѝdecisions,ѝtheѝCodeѝconsistsѝ ofѝabstractlyѝwrittenѝprinciplesѝasѝrulesѝofѝlaw.ѝ CivilѝlawѝisѝsometimesѝinappropriatelyѝreferredѝtoѝasѝRomanѝlawѝorѝoth- erwiseѝcalledѝRomano-Germanicѝlawѝorѝcontinentalѝcivilѝlaw,ѝespeciallyѝ byѝpeopleѝunderѝitsѝjurisdiction.ѝTheѝexpressionѝcivilѝlawѝisѝaѝtranslationѝofѝ LatinѝJusѝCivile,ѝwhichѝwasѝtheѝLateѝImperialѝtermѝforѝitsѝlegalѝsystem,ѝasѝ opposedѝtoѝtheѝlegalѝsystemsѝofѝconqueredѝorѝadversarialѝpeoples.ѝ

Lesson 9.

1. Powers and duties.

TheѝfirstѝpowerѝconferredѝuponѝtheѝPresidentѝbyѝtheѝU.S.ѝConstitutionѝ isѝtheѝlegislativeѝpowerѝofѝtheѝpresidentialѝveto.ѝTheѝPresentmentѝClauseѝ requiresѝallѝbillsѝpassedѝbyѝCongressѝtoѝbeѝpresentedѝtoѝtheѝPresidentѝ beforeѝtheyѝbecomeѝlaw.ѝ Perhapsѝtheѝmostѝimportantѝofѝallѝpresidentialѝpowersѝisѝcommandѝofѝtheѝ UnitedѝStatesѝarmedѝforcesѝasѝcommander-in-chief.ѝWhileѝtheѝpowerѝtoѝ declareѝwarѝisѝconstitutionallyѝvestedѝinѝCongress,ѝtheѝPresidentѝcommandsѝ andѝdirectsѝtheѝmilitaryѝandѝisѝresponsibleѝforѝplanningѝmilitaryѝstrategy.ѝ Congressѝmustѝauthorizeѝanyѝtroopѝdeploymentsѝmoreѝthanѝ60ѝdaysѝinѝ length.ѝAdditionally,ѝCongressѝprovidesѝaѝcheckѝtoѝpresidentialѝmilitaryѝ powerѝthroughѝitsѝcontrolѝoverѝmilitaryѝspendingѝandѝregulation.ѝ ForeignѝPolicyѝisѝalsoѝdirectedѝbyѝtheѝPresident.ѝTheѝpresidentѝisѝresponsibleѝforѝtheѝprotectionѝofѝAmericansѝabroadѝandѝofѝforeignѝnation-

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alsѝinѝtheѝUnitedѝStates.ѝTheѝpresidentѝdecidesѝwhetherѝtoѝrecognizeѝ newѝnationsѝandѝnewѝgovernments,ѝandѝnegotiatesѝtreatiesѝwithѝotherѝ nations,ѝwhichѝbecomeѝbindingѝonѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝwhenѝapprovedѝbyѝ two-thirdsѝofѝtheѝSenate.ѝ TheѝPresidentѝisѝtheѝchiefѝexecutiveѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStates,ѝwhoseѝresponsibilityѝisѝtoѝ«takeѝcareѝthatѝtheѝlawsѝbeѝfaithfullyѝexecuted.»ѝToѝcarryѝoutѝ thisѝduty,ѝheѝisѝgivenѝcontrolѝofѝtheѝfourѝmillionѝemployeesѝofѝtheѝfederalѝexecutiveѝbranch.ѝ VariousѝexecutiveѝbranchѝappointmentsѝareѝmadeѝbyѝPresidents.ѝUpѝtoѝ 6,000ѝappointmentsѝmayѝbeѝmadeѝbyѝanѝincomingѝPresidentѝbeforeѝheѝ takesѝofficeѝandѝ8,000ѝmoreѝmayѝbeѝmadeѝwhileѝinѝoffice.ѝAmbassadors,ѝ membersѝofѝtheѝCabinet,ѝandѝotherѝfederalѝofficers,ѝareѝallѝappointedѝbyѝ theѝPresidentѝwithѝtheѝ«adviceѝandѝconsent«ѝofѝaѝmajorityѝofѝtheѝSenate.ѝ TheѝPresidentѝalsoѝhasѝtheѝpowerѝtoѝnominateѝfederalѝjudges,ѝincludingѝ membersѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝCourtsѝofѝAppealsѝandѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝ SupremeѝCourt.ѝHowever,ѝtheseѝnominationsѝdoѝrequireѝSenateѝconfirmation.ѝTheѝPresidentѝmustѝappointѝjudgesѝforѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝDistrictѝCourts,ѝbutѝheѝwillѝoftenѝdeferѝtoѝSenatorialѝcourtesyѝinѝmakingѝ theseѝchoices.ѝHeѝmayѝalsoѝgrantѝpardonsѝandѝreprieves,ѝasѝisѝoftenѝdoneѝ justѝbeforeѝtheѝendѝofѝaѝpresidentialѝterm.ѝ

WhileѝtheѝPresidentѝcannotѝdirectlyѝintroduceѝlegislation,ѝheѝcanѝplayѝ anѝimportantѝroleѝinѝshapingѝit.ѝTheѝPresidentѝcanѝfurtherѝinfluenceѝtheѝ legislativeѝbranchѝthroughѝtheѝannualѝconstitutionally-mandatedѝreportѝ toѝCongress,ѝwhichѝmayѝbeѝwrittenѝorѝoralѝbutѝinѝmodernѝtimesѝisѝtheѝ StateѝofѝtheѝUnionѝaddress,ѝwhichѝoftenѝoutlinesѝtheѝPresident'sѝlegislativeѝproposalsѝforѝtheѝcomingѝyear.ѝ

TheѝConstitutionѝsetsѝtheѝprincipalѝqualificationsѝoneѝmustѝmeetѝtoѝbeѝ eligibleѝforѝelectionѝasѝPresident.ѝAѝPresidentialѝcandidateѝmust:ѝ

beѝaѝnaturalѝbornѝcitizenѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStates;ѝѝ

beѝatѝleastѝthirty-fiveѝyearsѝold;ѝѝ

haveѝbeenѝaѝpermanentѝresidentѝinѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝforѝatѝleastѝ fourteenѝyears.ѝUnderѝtheѝTwenty-secondѝAmendment,ѝnoѝoneѝcanѝbeѝ electedѝPresidentѝmoreѝthanѝtwice.ѝѝ

2. Presidential election campaign

TheѝmodernѝPresidentialѝcampaignѝbeginsѝbeforeѝtheѝprimaryѝelections,ѝ whichѝtheѝtwoѝmajorѝpoliticalѝpartiesѝuseѝtoѝclearѝtheѝfieldѝofѝcandidatesѝ inѝadvanceѝofѝtheirѝnationalѝnominatingѝconventions,ѝwhereѝtheѝmostѝ successfulѝcandidateѝisѝmadeѝtheѝparty'sѝnomineeѝforѝPresident.ѝTypically,ѝ theѝ party'sѝ Presidentialѝ candidateѝ choosesѝ aѝ Viceѝ Presidentialѝ nominee,ѝandѝthisѝchoiceѝisѝrubber-stampedѝbyѝtheѝconvention.ѝ

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Nomineesѝparticipateѝinѝnationallyѝtelevisedѝdebates,ѝandѝwhileѝtheѝdebatesѝareѝusuallyѝrestrictedѝtoѝtheѝDemocraticѝandѝRepublicanѝnominees,ѝthirdѝpartyѝcandidatesѝmayѝbeѝinvited,ѝsuchѝasѝRossѝPerotѝinѝtheѝ 1992ѝdebates.ѝNomineesѝcampaignѝacrossѝtheѝcountryѝtoѝexplainѝtheirѝ views,ѝconvinceѝvotersѝandѝsolicitѝcontributions.ѝMuchѝofѝtheѝmodernѝ electoralѝprocessѝisѝconcernedѝwithѝwinningѝswingѝstatesѝthroughѝfrequentѝvisitsѝandѝmassѝmediaѝadvertisingѝdrives.ѝ

3. Election and oath

PresidentsѝareѝelectedѝindirectlyѝinѝtheѝUnitedѝStates.ѝAѝnumberѝofѝelectors,ѝcollectivelyѝknownѝasѝtheѝElectoralѝCollege,ѝofficiallyѝselectѝtheѝ President.ѝOnѝElectionѝDay,ѝvotersѝinѝeachѝofѝtheѝstatesѝandѝtheѝDistrictѝ ofѝ Columbiaѝ castѝ ballotsѝ forѝ theseѝ electors.ѝ Eachѝ stateѝ isѝ allocatedѝ aѝ numberѝofѝelectors,ѝequalѝtoѝtheѝsizeѝofѝitsѝdelegationѝinѝbothѝHousesѝofѝ Congressѝcombined.ѝGenerally,ѝtheѝticketѝthatѝwinsѝtheѝmostѝvotesѝinѝaѝ stateѝwinsѝallѝofѝthatѝstate'sѝelectoralѝvotesѝandѝthusѝhasѝitsѝslateѝofѝelectorsѝchosenѝtoѝvoteѝinѝtheѝElectoralѝCollege.ѝ Theѝwinningѝslateѝofѝelectorsѝmeetѝatѝitsѝstate'sѝcapitalѝonѝtheѝfirstѝMondayѝafterѝtheѝsecondѝWednesdayѝinѝDecember,ѝaboutѝsixѝweeksѝafterѝtheѝ election,ѝtoѝvote.ѝTheyѝthenѝsendѝaѝrecordѝofѝthatѝvoteѝtoѝCongress.ѝTheѝ voteѝofѝtheѝelectorsѝisѝopenedѝbyѝtheѝsittingѝViceѝPresident,ѝactingѝinѝhisѝ capacityѝasѝPresidentѝofѝtheѝSenateѝandѝreadѝaloudѝtoѝaѝjointѝsessionѝofѝ theѝ incomingѝ Congress,ѝ whichѝ wasѝ electedѝ atѝ theѝ sameѝ timeѝ asѝ theѝ President.ѝ

PursuantѝtoѝtheѝTwentiethѝAmendment,ѝtheѝPresident'sѝtermѝofѝofficeѝ beginsѝatѝnoonѝonѝJanuaryѝ20ѝofѝtheѝyearѝfollowingѝtheѝelection.ѝThisѝ date,ѝknownѝasѝInaugurationѝDay,ѝmarksѝtheѝbeginningѝofѝtheѝfour-yearѝ termsѝofѝbothѝtheѝPresidentѝandѝViceѝPresident.ѝBeforeѝexecutingѝtheѝ powersѝofѝtheѝoffice,ѝtheѝPresidentѝisѝconstitutionallyѝrequiredѝtoѝtakeѝ theѝpresidentialѝoath:ѝ «Iѝdoѝsolemnlyѝswearѝ(orѝaffirm)ѝthatѝIѝwillѝfaithfullyѝexecuteѝtheѝOfficeѝ ofѝPresidentѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStates,ѝandѝwillѝtoѝtheѝbestѝofѝmyѝAbility,ѝpreserve,ѝprotectѝandѝdefendѝtheѝConstitutionѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStates.»ѝ EveryѝPresidentѝhasѝfollowedѝtheѝprecedentѝsetѝbyѝGeorgeѝWashingtonѝ byѝsuffixingѝtoѝtheѝendѝofѝtheѝoathѝ«SoѝhelpѝmeѝGod!»ѝAlthoughѝnotѝrequired,ѝPresidentsѝhaveѝtraditionallyѝusedѝaѝBibleѝtoѝtakeѝoathѝofѝoffice.ѝ Further,ѝthoughѝnoѝlawѝrequiresѝthatѝtheѝoathѝofѝofficeѝbeѝadministeredѝ byѝ anyѝ specificѝ person,ѝ Presidentsѝ areѝ traditionallyѝ swornѝ inѝ byѝ theѝ ChiefѝJusticeѝofѝtheѝUnitedѝStates.ѝ

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Lesson 10 Detection methods

Theѝresponsibilityѝofѝlawѝenforcementѝagenciesѝisѝtoѝdetectѝcrimes,ѝapprehendѝ theѝ perpetrators,ѝ andѝ provideѝ evidenceѝ thatѝ willѝ convinceѝ judgesѝandѝjuriesѝthatѝtheѝperpetratorsѝareѝguiltyѝbeyondѝaѝreasonableѝ doubt.ѝToѝaccomplishѝtheseѝaimsѝaѝvarietyѝofѝmethodsѝareѝused,ѝincludingѝreconstructingѝtheѝcrime,ѝcollectingѝphysicalѝclues,ѝandѝinterrogatingѝsuspectsѝandѝwitnesses.ѝ

Theѝmethodsѝofѝdetectionѝemployedѝareѝdictatedѝbyѝtheѝnatureѝofѝtheѝ crimeѝandѝtheѝproceduresѝpermittedѝbyѝtheѝlegalѝsystem.ѝMostѝinvestigationsѝbeginѝwithѝcareful,ѝobjectiveѝobservationsѝthatѝareѝthenѝassembled,ѝ collated,ѝandѝmatchedѝagainstѝapplicableѝlaw.ѝIfѝthereѝisѝreasonѝtoѝassumeѝthatѝaѝcrimeѝhasѝindeedѝbeenѝcommitted,ѝfurtherѝinvestigationѝisѝ undertakenѝusingѝscientificѝmethodsѝandѝtechniques.ѝTechnologicalѝadvancesѝhaveѝbeenѝincorporatedѝintoѝcriminalѝinvestigationѝasѝwell;ѝforѝ example,ѝanalyzingѝtraceѝcluesѝsuchѝasѝdust,ѝpaint,ѝglass,ѝandѝotherѝmicroscopicѝevidenceѝisѝnowѝpossible.ѝ

ѝ

Earlyѝ criminalѝ investigationѝ wasѝ aѝ crudeѝ process,ѝ relyingѝ onѝ eyewitnesses,ѝinferences,ѝandѝconfessionsѝextractedѝunderѝtorture.ѝ

Theѝ firstѝ majorѝ stepѝ inѝ modernѝ crimeѝ detectionѝ tookѝ placeѝ inѝ Greatѝ Britain.ѝInѝ1829ѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝActѝestablishedѝtheѝbasisѝforѝ theѝ Scotlandѝ Yardѝ detectiveѝ department.ѝ Theѝ Britishѝ exampleѝ influencedѝtheѝdevelopmentѝofѝcriminalѝinvestigationѝinѝtheѝUnitedѝStates,ѝ whereѝ largeѝ citiesѝ patternedѝ theirѝ policeѝ effortsѝ afterѝ theѝ successfulѝ modelѝinѝEngland.ѝ

CriminalѝinvestigationsѝareѝnowѝconductedѝinѝtheѝU.S.ѝatѝmunicipal,ѝ state,ѝandѝfederalѝlevelsѝinѝaccordanceѝwithѝtheѝdictatesѝofѝtheѝlaw.ѝTheѝ conductѝofѝanѝinvestigationѝisѝgovernedѝbyѝinformationѝobtainedѝfromѝ people,ѝrecords,ѝandѝphysicalѝevidence.ѝVictimsѝorѝwitnessesѝstillѝprovideѝtheѝbulkѝofѝfactsѝasѝtoѝwhen,ѝwhere,ѝhow,ѝwhy,ѝandѝbyѝwhomѝtheѝ crimeѝwasѝcommitted.ѝ

ѝ

Oneѝofѝtheѝoldestѝwaysѝofѝdetectingѝcriminalѝactivityѝisѝthroughѝsurveillance.ѝThisѝmethodѝisѝusedѝwhenѝitѝisѝlikelyѝthatѝaѝcrimeѝwillѝtakeѝplaceѝ atѝaѝspecificѝlocationѝorѝwhenѝcertainѝpersonsѝareѝsuspectedѝofѝcriminalѝ activity.ѝTheѝfirstѝsituationѝusuallyѝisѝhandledѝbyѝfixedѝpoliceѝobservationѝ knownѝasѝaѝstakeout;ѝtheѝsecondѝcircumstanceѝmayѝrequireѝmobileѝobservationѝasѝwell,ѝperhapsѝonѝfootѝorѝbyѝautomobile.ѝSomeѝsituationsѝ

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mayѝcallѝforѝaerialѝobservationѝ(usingѝhelicopters)ѝorѝelectronicѝproceduresѝ(usingѝlisteningѝdevicesѝthatѝmonitorѝtelephoneѝlines).ѝ Theѝobservationѝmethodѝmustѝbeѝlegal.ѝSurveillanceѝtechniques,ѝforѝexample,ѝmayѝincludeѝplacingѝpersonnelѝinѝstrategicѝlocationsѝandѝequippingѝthemѝwithѝopticalѝaids,ѝsuchѝasѝbinocularsѝorѝscopesѝwithѝtheѝcapacityѝtoѝdetectѝanѝobjectѝilluminatedѝonlyѝbyѝmoonlight,ѝorѝwithѝelectronicѝdevices,ѝsensitiveѝtoѝaѝconversationѝtakingѝplaceѝatѝaѝconsiderableѝ distance.ѝWhereѝaѝpossibilityѝexistsѝofѝinvasionѝofѝprivacy,ѝaѝcourtѝorderѝ isѝrequiredѝtoѝmakeѝtheѝpoliceѝactionѝandѝtheѝinformationѝobtainedѝacceptableѝatѝaѝtrial.ѝ Alliedѝtoѝsurveillanceѝareѝcovertѝorѝundercoverѝobservations,ѝwhichѝusuallyѝareѝconfinedѝtoѝactivitiesѝsuchѝasѝgambling,ѝdealingѝinѝnarcotics,ѝ andѝotherѝmajorѝorganizedѝcrimes.ѝInformantsѝareѝtheѝsourceѝofѝmuchѝ usefulѝinformationѝinѝinvestigations;ѝtheyѝmayѝbeѝcitizenѝmotivatedѝbyѝ civicѝdutyѝorѝsometimes,ѝcriminalsѝmotivatedѝbyѝself-interest.ѝ

Lesson 11

1. Interrogation

Theѝinformationѝneededѝtoѝfurtherѝanѝinvestigationѝmustѝbeѝobtainedѝ fromѝ peopleѝ whoѝ haveѝ someѝ significantѝ knowledgeѝ concerningѝ theѝ crime.ѝWitnessesѝorѝvictimsѝareѝinterviewed,ѝandѝsuspectsѝareѝinterrogated.ѝEyewitnessesѝtoѝaѝcrimeѝareѝoftenѝaskedѝtoѝidentifyѝtheѝperpetratorѝalthoughѝidentificationѝerrorsѝhaveѝpromptedѝpsychologistsѝtoѝexploreѝtheѝprocessesѝandѝpitfallsѝofѝmemory,ѝrecall,ѝandѝrecognition.ѝExperimentsѝunderѝcontrolledѝconditionsѝindicateѝthatѝjurorsѝwillѝconvictѝ fourѝtimesѝasѝoftenѝifѝeyewitnessѝtestimonyѝisѝoffered,ѝevenѝwhenѝtheѝ visualѝ acuityѝ ofѝ theѝ witnessѝ isѝ discredited.ѝ Eyewitnessѝ identifications,ѝ therefore,ѝmustѝbeѝconsideredѝcarefully,ѝandѝtheѝcredibilityѝofѝtheѝidentificationѝmustѝbeѝtestedѝtoѝensureѝthatѝerrorѝisѝunlikely.ѝ Interrogationѝisѝusedѝwhenѝtheѝinformationѝsoughtѝisѝnotѝreadilyѝforthcoming,ѝperhapsѝbecauseѝofѝhostilityѝorѝguiltѝOftenѝsomeѝkeyѝtoѝtheѝsolutionѝofѝaѝcrime,ѝsuchѝasѝtheѝlocationѝofѝtheѝweaponѝinѝaѝmurderѝcase,ѝ isѝknownѝonlyѝtoѝtheѝperpetrator.ѝWithoutѝinformationѝprovidedѝbyѝtheѝ suspect,ѝaѝcrimeѝmayѝgoѝunsolved.ѝLegalѝsafeguardsѝagainstѝabuseѝnowѝ surroundѝthisѝprocess.ѝBeforeѝusingѝanyѝinformationѝobtainedѝfromѝanѝ interrogation,ѝtheѝcourtѝmustѝbeѝassuredѝthatѝtheѝsuspectѝwasѝadvisedѝofѝ hisѝorѝherѝrights.ѝIfѝproperѝlegalѝproceduresѝareѝnotѝfollowed,ѝanyѝevidenceѝobtainedѝisѝinadmissibleѝinѝaѝtrial.ѝ

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2. Records

Criminalѝrecordsѝrepresentѝanѝimportantѝdataѝbaseѝforѝpoliceѝactivities.ѝ Eachѝtimeѝanѝarrestѝisѝmade,ѝtheѝsuspectѝisѝfingerprintedѝinѝmultipleѝ copies;ѝaѝcopyѝisѝsentѝtoѝtheѝstateѝidentificationѝsystemѝandѝanotherѝgoesѝ toѝtheѝFederalѝBureauѝofѝInvestigation,ѝorѝFBI,ѝinѝWashington,ѝD.C.ѝIfѝ theѝsuspectѝisѝwantedѝbyѝaѝlawѝenforcementѝagency,ѝaѝnoticeѝinѝtheѝfileѝ ofѝtheѝNationalѝCrimeѝInformationѝCenterѝofѝtheѝFBIѝwillѝappriseѝtheѝ interestedѝagencyѝofѝtheѝstatusѝandѝlocationѝofѝthatѝindividual.ѝ Aѝspecialѝbranchѝofѝrecordsѝcalledѝintelligenceѝfilesѝcontainsѝbiographicalѝinformationѝonѝselectedѝcriminals.ѝTeseѝfilesѝincludeѝcriminalѝspecialties,ѝassociates,ѝandѝskillsѝandѝotnerѝinformationѝthatѝplightѝsuggestѝ futureѝcriminalѝinvolvementѝandѝtheѝmeansѝbyѝwhichѝtheѝcriminalsѝcar!ѝ beѝapprehended.ѝRecordsѝareѝalsoѝusedѝforѝaѝgeneralѝanalysisѝofѝcrimesѝ andѝareѝconsultedѝbyѝinvestigatorsѝtoѝlocateѝwantedѝorѝmissingѝpersons.ѝ

Lesson 12

Interesting facts from the history of the Metropolitan police

Untilѝ1829,ѝlawѝenforcementѝhadѝbeenѝlackingѝinѝorganisation.ѝAsѝLondonѝexpandedѝduringѝtheѝ18thѝandѝ19thѝcenturiesѝtheѝquestionѝofѝmaintainingѝ lawѝ andѝ orderѝ hadѝ becomeѝ aѝ matterѝ ofѝ publicѝ concern.ѝ Sirѝ RobertѝPeel'sѝpoliceѝBillѝledѝtoѝtheѝsettingѝupѝofѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝ Forceѝonѝ29ѝSeptember.ѝInѝ1836ѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝabsorbedѝtheѝ BowѝStreetѝHorseѝPatrolѝintoѝitsѝcontrol.ѝTheѝDetectiveѝDepartmentѝ wasѝformedѝinѝ1842.ѝ

1846—1847ѝ—ѝPlainѝclothesѝofficersѝwereѝfrequentlyѝusedѝatѝthisѝtime,ѝ butѝaѝJuneѝorderѝmadeѝclearѝthatѝtwoѝofficersѝperѝdivisionѝwouldѝbeѝemployedѝonѝdetectiveѝduties,ѝbutѝthatѝpoliceѝinѝplainѝclothesѝmustѝmakeѝ themselvesѝknownѝifѝinterferedѝwithѝinѝtheirѝduty.ѝ

Inѝ1858ѝfirstѝPoliceѝvansѝforѝconveyingѝprisonersѝwereѝacquired.ѝThoseѝ wereѝhorseѝdrawn,ѝandѝknownѝasѝ«BlackѝMarias».ѝ Inѝ1860ѝPoliceѝbeganѝtheѝoccasionalѝuseѝofѝhandѝam-

bulancesѝforѝinjured,ѝsickѝorѝdrunkѝpeople.ѝAccommodationѝorѝ«ambulanceѝsheds»ѝwereѝlaterѝprovidedѝ forѝthoseѝinѝpoliceѝstationѝyards.ѝ

ѝ

Inѝ1878ѝCharlesѝVincentѝwasѝappointedѝDirectorѝofѝ Criminalѝ Investigations,ѝ theѝ reformedѝ Detectiveѝ

BranchѝwhichѝbecameѝknownѝasѝC.I.D.ѝ ѝ InitialѝrulesѝforѝdealingѝwithѝMurderѝcases,ѝreleasedѝ onѝ7ѝJuneѝ1879,ѝstatedѝ«theѝbodyѝmustѝnotѝbeѝmoved,ѝ

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norѝanythingѝaboutѝitѝorѝinѝtheѝroomѝorѝplaceѝinterferedѝwith,ѝandѝtheѝ publicѝmustѝbeѝexcluded».ѝ

Theѝstrengthѝofѝtheѝforceѝinѝ1885ѝwasѝ13,319,ѝbutѝstatisticsѝshowѝthatѝ onlyѝ1,383ѝofficersѝwereѝavailableѝforѝbeatѝdutyѝinѝtheѝday.ѝTheѝpopulationѝofѝLondonѝatѝthisѝtimeѝwasѝ5,255,069.ѝ

Inѝ1890ѝtheѝnewѝheadquartersѝatѝtheѝNormanѝShawѝBuildingѝonѝtheѝ EmbankmentѝknownѝasѝNewѝScotlandѝYardѝwereѝopened.ѝ TheѝAlphonseѝBertillonѝsystemѝofѝidentificationѝcameѝintoѝoperationѝinѝ 1894.ѝ

Toѝ joinѝ theѝ Metropolitanѝ Policeѝ inѝ 1895ѝ theѝ followingѝ qualificationsѝ wereѝnecessary:ѝ

toѝbeѝoverѝ21ѝandѝunderѝ27ѝyearsѝofѝageѝ

toѝstandѝclearѝ5ftѝ9insѝwithoutѝshoesѝorѝstockingsѝ

toѝbeѝableѝtoѝreadѝwell,ѝwriteѝlegiblyѝandѝhaveѝaѝfairѝknowledgeѝofѝ spellingѝ

toѝbeѝgenerallyѝintelligentѝ

toѝ beѝ freeѝ fromѝ anyѝ bodilyѝ complaintѝ (flatѝ foot,ѝ stiffnessѝ ofѝ joints,ѝnarrowѝchestѝandѝdeformitiesѝofѝtheѝface)ѝ

Inѝ1898—1899ѝafterѝaѝseriesѝofѝassaultsѝandѝtheѝmurderѝofѝPCѝthereѝwereѝ callsѝforѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝtoѝbeѝarmedѝwithѝrevolvers.ѝHighѝrateѝ ofѝsuicidesѝamongstѝofficersѝwasѝblamedѝonѝharshѝdisciplineѝandѝinsensitiveѝhandlingѝofѝtheѝmen.ѝ 1901ѝTheѝFingerprintѝBureauѝcommencedѝoperation.ѝ 1906ѝTheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝatѝthisѝstageѝinѝtheirѝhistoryѝwereѝonѝdutyѝ forѝ13ѝdaysѝaѝfortnightѝandѝhaveѝanѝadditionalѝleaveѝofѝ10ѝdays.ѝ Sinceѝ1908ѝtheѝauthoritiesѝatѝScotlandѝYardѝhadѝbeenѝseriouslyѝdiscussingѝtheѝuseѝofѝdogsѝasѝtheѝconstableѝcompanionѝandѝhelp,ѝandѝSirѝEdwardѝHenryѝ(Commissioner)ѝregardedѝtheѝinnovationѝsympathetically.ѝ WomenѝPoliceѝwasѝfoundedѝinѝ1914.ѝ

DuringѝWorldѝWarѝ1ѝsomeѝ2,300ѝmembersѝofѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝ wereѝservingѝinѝtheѝarmedѝservices.ѝ TheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝCollegeѝopenedѝatѝHendon.inѝ1934.ѝ MetropolitanѝPoliceѝForensicѝLaboratoryѝwasѝopenedѝinѝ1935.ѝ Theѝ999ѝcrimeѝdetectionѝandѝemergencyѝserviceѝsystemѝwasѝintroducedѝ inѝ1937.ѝ Asѝairѝraidѝbombingsѝcontinuedѝinѝ1941,ѝmanyѝpoliceѝstationsѝwereѝdestroyedѝorѝtooѝbadlyѝdamagedѝtoѝbeѝused.ѝѝ Inѝ1957ѝCommissionerѝScottѝintroducedѝtrainingѝofѝcadetsѝagedѝ16—18ѝ toѝbecomeѝpoliceѝofficers.ѝ

Inѝ1960sѝCriminalѝIntelligenceѝSectionѝandѝStolenѝMotorѝVehicleѝInvestigationѝbranchesѝwereѝestablishedѝTheѝfirstѝcomputerѝtoѝbeѝusedѝbyѝ

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theѝMetѝwasѝsetѝupѝinѝtheѝofficeѝofѝtheѝReceiverѝforѝuseѝonѝpayѝandѝ crimeѝstatistics.ѝSeriousѝCrimeѝSquadѝbecameѝpermanent.ѝ

TheѝheadquartersѝwasѝmovedѝtoѝaѝnewѝbuildingѝinѝBroadway,ѝjustѝoffѝ VictoriaѝStreet.ѝTheѝnameѝofѝNewѝScotlandѝYardѝisѝretained.ѝѝ MetropolitanѝAirѝSupportѝUnitѝwithѝitsѝownѝBellѝ222ѝhelicopterѝwasѝ formedѝinѝ1980.ѝ

Inѝ1995ѝCrimeѝReportѝInformationѝSystemѝ(CRIS)ѝwasѝintroduced.ѝItѝ revolutionisedѝtheѝmeansѝofѝrecordingѝcrimes.ѝ

Inѝ1996ѝtheѝMPSѝlaunchedѝitsѝWebsiteѝatѝwww.met.police.uk.ѝTheѝNationalѝAutomatedѝFingerprintѝIdentificationѝSystemѝwasѝinstalled.ѝ TheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝhaveѝlaunchedѝtheѝPolicingѝDiversityѝStrategyѝ sinceѝ1998.ѝTheѝaimѝisѝtoѝprovideѝbetterѝprotectionѝtoѝethnicѝcommunitiesѝfromѝracialѝandѝviolentѝcrimeѝandѝdemonstrateѝfairnessѝinѝeveryѝaspectѝofѝpolicing.ѝ

Lesson 13

1. The FBI

TheѝFBIѝcurrentlyѝhaveѝjurisdictionѝoverѝviolationsѝofѝmoreѝthanѝ200ѝ categoriesѝ ofѝ federalѝ law,ѝ andѝ youѝ canѝ findѝ theѝ majorѝ onesѝ below,ѝ groupedѝwithinѝourѝthreeѝnationalѝsecurityѝprioritiesѝandѝourѝfiveѝcriminalѝpriorities.ѝ

ѝ

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2. FBI Laboratory

TheѝDNAѝAnalysisѝUnitѝexaminesѝitemsѝofѝevidenceѝfromѝaѝwideѝvarietyѝ ofѝallegedѝcrimesѝincludingѝcounterterrorismѝandѝintelligenceѝgatheringѝ efforts,ѝthreateningѝlettersѝ(e.g.ѝanthraxѝthreatѝletters),ѝviolentѝcrimesѝ suchѝasѝhomicidesѝandѝsexualѝassaults,ѝbankѝrobberies,ѝextortionѝandѝ organizedѝcrimeѝcases,ѝandѝmanyѝotherѝviolationsѝinvestigatedѝbyѝtheѝ FBI.ѝ Theѝunitѝ isѝ alsoѝ responsibleѝ forѝtheѝ processingѝ ofѝ knownѝDNAѝ samplesѝfromѝtheѝnation'sѝfederalѝconvictedѝoffendersѝ TheѝTraceѝEvidenceѝUnitѝidentifiesѝandѝcomparesѝspecificѝtypesѝofѝtraceѝ materialsѝthatѝcouldѝbeѝtransferredѝduringѝtheѝcommissionѝofѝaѝviolentѝ crime.ѝTheseѝtraceѝmaterialsѝincludeѝhumanѝhair,ѝanimalѝhair,ѝtextileѝ fibersѝandѝfabric,ѝrope,ѝfeathers,ѝwood,ѝsoil,ѝglass,ѝandѝbuildingѝmaterials.ѝTheѝphysicalѝandѝcomparisonѝofѝtheseѝmaterialsѝcanѝoftenѝlinkѝaѝ suspectѝtoѝaѝcrimeѝsceneѝorѝtoѝphysicalѝcontactѝwithѝanotherѝindividual.ѝ Tornѝpiecesѝofѝfabricѝcanѝbeѝpositivelyѝassociatedѝtoѝaѝdamagedѝgarment,ѝandѝbrokenѝpiecesѝofѝglassѝorѝwoodѝcanѝbeѝpositivelyѝfitѝtogether.ѝ Physicalѝ anthropologyѝ (skeletalѝ remains)ѝ examinationsѝ areѝ alsoѝ performed.ѝTheseѝexaminationsѝareѝconductedѝtoѝassistѝinѝtheѝidentificationѝ ofѝhumanѝremains.ѝ

TheѝDNAѝAnalysisѝUnitѝIIѝexaminesѝbiologicalѝitemsѝofѝevidenceѝfromѝ crimeѝ scenesѝ toѝ determineѝ theѝ mitochondrialѝ DNAѝ sequenceѝ fromѝ samplesѝsuchѝasѝhair,ѝbones,ѝandѝteeth.ѝTypically,ѝtheseѝitemsѝcontainѝ lowѝconcentrationsѝofѝdegradedѝDNA,ѝmakingѝthemѝunsuitableѝforѝnuclearѝ DNAѝ examinations.ѝ DNAAU-2ѝ alsoѝ maintainsѝ theѝ Nationalѝ MissingѝPersonѝDNAѝDatabaseѝprogramѝforѝtheѝidentificationѝofѝmissingѝandѝunidentifiedѝpersonsѝandѝtheѝScientificѝWorkingѝGroupѝDNAѝ

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AnalysisѝMethodsѝPopulationѝDatabase,ѝwhichѝisѝanѝintegratedѝsoftwareѝ andѝdatabaseѝresourceѝforѝforensicѝcomparison.ѝ

Theѝ Cryptanalysisѝ andѝ Racketeeringѝ Recordsѝ Unitѝ examinesѝ bothѝ manuallyѝ encryptedѝ documentsѝ andѝ recordsѝ ofѝ illegalѝ enterprises,ѝ asѝ wellѝasѝprovidesѝexpertѝtestimonyѝandѝotherѝforensicѝassistanceѝtoѝfurtherѝidentifyѝterrorism,ѝforeignѝintelligence,ѝandѝcriminalѝactivitiesѝinѝ supportѝofѝfederal,ѝstate,ѝlocal,ѝandѝinternationalѝlawѝenforcementѝinvestigationsѝandѝprosecutions.ѝ

TheѝFirearms-ToolmarksѝUnitѝappliesѝvalidѝscientificѝpracticesѝinѝtheѝ forensicѝexaminationѝofѝfirearms,ѝammunitionѝcomponents,ѝtoolmarks,ѝ gunshotѝ residueѝ onѝ victimѝ clothing,ѝ bulletѝ trajectories,ѝ andѝ closelyrelatedѝphysicalѝevidence.ѝ TheѝLatentѝPrintѝOperationsѝUnitѝconductsѝtimely,ѝhigh-qualityѝscien- tificѝexaminationsѝinѝtheѝareaѝofѝfrictionѝridgeѝanalysis,ѝincludingѝtheѝ developmentѝandѝcomparisonѝofѝlatentѝfingerprints,ѝpalmѝprints,ѝandѝ footprints;ѝreportsѝfindings;ѝprovidesѝexpertѝtestimonyѝrelatingѝtoѝtheseѝ examinationsѝinѝlegalѝproceedings;ѝandѝprovidesѝtrainingѝandѝforensicѝ fieldѝsupportѝtoѝtheѝlawѝenforcementѝcommunityѝonѝaѝnationalѝandѝinternationalѝlevel.ѝ TheѝExplosivesѝUnitѝconductsѝexaminationsѝofѝevidenceѝassociatedѝwithѝ bombingѝmatters.ѝdevices,ѝandѝtheirѝrespectiveѝremains,ѝwhileѝprovidingѝ expertѝwitnessѝtestimonyѝinѝcourtѝregardingѝtheѝresultsѝofѝtheseѝexaminations.ѝTheѝEUѝalsoѝprovidesѝdirectѝfieldѝsupportѝinѝѝ

bombingѝmatters,ѝbombingѝcrimeѝsceneѝinvestigations,ѝandѝsearchesѝofѝ bombѝfactoriesѝandѝsafeѝhousesѝinѝwhichѝbombsѝorѝbombѝcomponentsѝ mayѝbeѝencountered.ѝ

TheѝPhotographicѝOperationsѝandѝImagingѝServicesѝUnitѝprovidesѝinvestigative/forensicѝphotography,ѝimaging,ѝandѝphotographicѝprocessingѝ supportѝforѝfederal,ѝstate,ѝlocal,ѝandѝinternationalѝlawѝenforcementѝinvestigations.ѝItѝalsoѝcaptures,ѝprocesses,ѝandѝproducesѝphotographicѝimagesѝutilizingѝtraditionalѝsilverѝbasedѝmethods,ѝasѝwellѝasѝdigitalѝimagingѝ technologies.ѝTheѝUnitѝmanagesѝtheѝFBIѝphotographicѝprogramѝandѝisѝ responsibleѝforѝtheѝoversightѝandѝmanagementѝofѝtheѝfieldѝphotographicѝ programѝencompassingѝoverѝ125ѝfullѝtimeѝandѝbackѝupѝphotographersѝinѝ theѝ56ѝfieldѝdivisions.ѝ

ѝ

ѝ

HereѝareѝsomeѝofѝtheѝinvestigativeѝtechniquesѝandѝoperationalѝcapabilitiesѝtheѝFBIѝagentsѝuseѝtoѝsolveѝcasesѝandѝsupportѝtheirѝlawѝenforcementѝ partners.ѝ

BehavioralѝAnalysisѝѝ

CrimeѝReportsѝ&ѝAnalysisѝѝ

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Cryptanalysisѝѝ

CompositeѝSketches/CrimeѝSceneѝReconstructionsѝѝ

CrimeѝDataѝManagementѝѝ

CrisisѝNegotiationѝѝ

DisasterѝVictimѝIDsѝѝ

DNAѝAnalysisѝѝ

DigitalѝForensicsѝѝ

EvidenceѝRecoveryѝѝ

FirearmsѝIdentificationѝѝ

ForensicѝAccountingѝѝ

Fugitive/MissingѝPersonsѝSearchesѝ

FingerprintѝIDsѝ&ѝExamsѝ

GunѝBackgroundѝChecksѝѝ

HazardousѝMaterialsѝresponseѝѝ

HostageѝRescueѝѝ

IntelѝGatheringѝ&ѝAnalysisѝѝ

Link/NetworkѝAnalysisѝ

OperationalѝTechnologiesѝѝ

SpecialѝEventѝSecurityѝѝ

SWATѝTeamsѝѝ

TranslationѝServicesѝѝ

UndercoverѝOperationsѝ

UnderwaterѝOperationsѝѝ

Lesson 14

The «Brides in the Bath» Murders

Georgeѝ Josephѝ Smithѝ (aliasѝ Oliverѝ Georgeѝ Love,ѝ Charlesѝ Oliverѝ James,ѝHenryѝWilliamsѝandѝJohnѝLloyd)ѝwasѝfoundѝguiltyѝofѝtheѝmurdersѝofѝBessieѝWilliamsѝwhoѝwasѝfoundѝdeadѝinѝaѝbathѝinѝ1912,ѝAliceѝ BurnhamѝwhoѝdiedѝinѝaѝbathѝatѝBlackpoolѝinѝDecemberѝ1913,ѝandѝ MargaretѝElizabethѝLoftyѝwhoѝwasѝfoundѝinѝaѝbathѝinѝHighgateѝinѝDecemberѝ1914.ѝ

Itѝwasѝsignificantѝthatѝwhenѝtheѝcaseѝ wasѝ underѝ investigationѝ Divisionalѝ Detectiveѝ Inspectorѝ Neilѝ formedѝ theѝ opinionѝalongѝwithѝtheѝpathologistѝDrѝ Bernardѝ Spilsburyѝ thatѝ itѝ wouldѝ beѝ impossibleѝforѝanyoneѝtoѝaccidentallyѝ drownѝinѝanyѝofѝtheѝbathsѝinѝquestion.ѝ Onѝ13ѝJulyѝ1912ѝBessieѝWilliamsѝwasѝ foundѝ deadѝ inѝ herѝ bathѝ atѝ 80ѝ Highѝ

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Street,ѝHerneѝBay.ѝItѝwasѝascertainedѝthatѝfiveѝdaysѝbeforeѝherѝdeathѝsheѝ hadѝmadeѝaѝwillѝinѝfavourѝofѝherѝhusband,ѝHenryѝWilliamsѝ(aliasѝGeorgeѝ JosephѝSmith)ѝbyѝwhichѝheѝbenefitedѝtoѝtheѝamountѝofѝЈ2,579,ѝ13ѝshillingsѝandѝ7ѝpence.ѝSmithѝwasѝquestionedѝclosely,ѝbutѝtheѝopinionѝofѝtheѝ doctorѝwhoѝexaminedѝBessieѝatѝtheѝtimeѝofѝherѝdeathѝapparentlyѝconvincedѝtheѝjury.ѝ

Drѝ Frankѝ Frenchѝ saidѝ heѝ believedѝ sheѝ hadѝ hadѝ anѝ epilepticѝ fit,ѝ andѝ thoughtѝtheѝcauseѝofѝdeathѝhadѝbeenѝasphyxiaѝbroughtѝaboutѝbyѝdrowning.ѝAskedѝifѝheѝhadѝseenѝanyѝsignsѝofѝaѝstruggleѝonѝtheѝbodyѝheѝrepliedѝ thatѝheѝhadѝseenѝnone.ѝTheѝlastѝquestionѝatѝtheѝinquestѝwasѝwhetherѝtheѝ deathѝhadѝbeenѝdueѝtoѝanythingѝelseѝotherѝthanѝdrowning.ѝTheѝdoctorѝ replied:ѝ«Iѝhaveѝnoѝreasonѝtoѝsuspectѝanyѝotherѝcauseѝthanѝdrowning.»ѝ Theѝ juryѝ didѝ notѝ wishѝ forѝ aѝ postѝ mortemѝ andѝ returnedѝ aѝ verdictѝ ofѝ «Deathѝbyѝmisadventure».ѝ

TheѝdeathѝofѝAliceѝSmithѝonѝ12thѝDecemberѝ1913ѝsawѝGeorgeѝJosephѝ Smithѝatѝworkѝagain.ѝAlice'sѝfatherѝhadѝsevereѝdoubtsѝaboutѝhisѝprospectiveѝsonѝinѝlaw,ѝdescribingѝhimѝduringѝtheѝengagementѝasѝbeingѝofѝ«veryѝ evilѝappearance»,ѝandѝyetѝtheѝmarriageѝwentѝaheadѝnonetheless.ѝ

OnѝtheѝeveningѝofѝherѝdeathѝAliceѝwentѝforѝaѝbathѝatѝtheѝapartments,ѝ ownedѝbyѝMrѝ&ѝMrsѝCrossley,ѝwhereѝsheѝandѝherѝhusbandѝwereѝstaying,ѝ andѝneverѝreturned.ѝ

JosephѝCrossleyѝnotedѝwhenѝherѝbodyѝwasѝfoundѝsometimeѝlaterѝthatѝ herѝheadѝwasѝatѝtheѝfootѝofѝtheѝbath.ѝTheѝinquestѝheldѝonѝtheѝ13thѝDecemberѝ returnedѝ theѝ verdictѝ thatѝ Aliceѝ hadѝ «accidentallyѝ drownedѝ throughѝheartѝfailureѝwhenѝinѝtheѝbath.»ѝAlice,ѝitѝtranspired,ѝhadѝinsuredѝ herselfѝforѝЈ500.ѝѝ LifeѝinsuranceѝwasѝalsoѝtheѝdeathѝwarrantѝforѝMargaretѝElizabethѝLloydѝ (neeѝLofty).ѝJohnѝLloydѝ(otherwiseѝknownѝasѝGeorgeѝJosephѝSmith)ѝ tookѝroomsѝwithѝhisѝwifeѝinѝaѝboardingѝhouseѝatѝ14ѝBismarkѝRoad,ѝinѝ Highgate,ѝLondon.ѝ Onѝtheѝafternoonѝofѝ18ѝDecemberѝ1914ѝMargaretѝLloydѝhadѝvisitedѝherѝ solicitorѝinѝIslingtonѝandѝmadeѝaѝwillѝinѝfavourѝofѝherѝhusband.ѝLaterѝ thatѝeveningѝ«JohnѝLloyd»ѝtoldѝtheѝownerѝofѝtheѝhouseѝthatѝheѝwasѝgoingѝoutѝtoѝbuyѝsomeѝtomatoesѝforѝhisѝwife'sѝsupperѝwhilstѝsheѝtookѝaѝ bath.ѝ Whenѝheѝreturnedѝheѝcalledѝoutѝtoѝhisѝwifeѝand,ѝgettingѝnoѝanswer,ѝenteredѝtheѝbathroomѝandѝfoundѝherѝdeadѝinѝtheѝbath.ѝTheѝinquestѝtookѝ placeѝonѝtheѝ1stѝJanuaryѝ1915ѝandѝaѝverdictѝofѝaccidentalѝdeathѝwasѝrecorded.ѝѝ WhenѝtheѝhearseѝdrewѝupѝatѝtheѝfuneralѝSmithѝtoldѝtheѝundertakerѝHerbertѝFrancisѝBeckett:ѝ«Iѝdon'tѝwantѝanyѝwalking,ѝgetѝitѝoverѝasѝquickѝasѝ

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youѝcan»,ѝandѝafterѝtheѝfuneralѝwasѝoverѝheѝwasѝheardѝtoѝsay:ѝ«Thankѝ goodness,ѝthat'sѝallѝover».ѝ

OnѝJanuaryѝ3ѝ1915ѝJosephѝCrossleyѝwroteѝtoѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝ andѝenclosedѝaѝnewspaperѝcuttingѝaboutѝtheѝdeathѝofѝMargaretѝLloyd,ѝ remarkingѝhowѝsimilarѝitѝwasѝtoѝtheѝdeathѝofѝAliceѝSmithѝ12ѝmonthsѝ previouslyѝinѝBlackpool.ѝThusѝstartedѝtheѝdownfallѝofѝSmith.ѝ

UponѝinvestigationѝtheѝdetailsѝofѝSmith'sѝsinisterѝlifeѝemerged.ѝGeorgeѝ Josephѝ Smithѝhadѝbeenѝbornѝ inѝ BethnalѝGreenѝonѝ theѝ 11thѝJanuaryѝ 1872.ѝInѝ1898ѝheѝmarriedѝCarolineѝBeatriceѝThornhill.ѝInѝ1908ѝheѝmarriedѝEdithѝPeglarѝ(inѝtheѝnameѝofѝOliverѝGeorgeѝLove),ѝalthoughѝhisѝ firstѝwifeѝwasѝstillѝalive.ѝInѝ1910ѝwhenѝheѝmarriedѝBessieѝMundy,ѝEdithѝ Peglarѝwasѝstillѝalive.ѝFromѝthatѝmomentѝmurderѝandѝmoneyѝtookѝoverѝ hisѝlife.ѝ DivisionalѝDetectiveѝInspectorѝNeilѝstoppedѝSmithѝonѝtheѝ1stѝFebruaryѝ 1915ѝ inѝ Uxbridgeѝ Roadѝ inѝ London.ѝOnѝ theѝ 8thѝFebruaryѝ Smithѝ appearedѝatѝBowѝStreetѝPoliceѝCourtѝandѝwasѝremandedѝtillѝtheѝ15thѝofѝ February.ѝѝ Heѝwasѝinitiallyѝchargedѝwithѝcausingѝaѝfalseѝentryѝtoѝbeѝmadeѝinѝaѝmarriageѝ register,ѝbutѝtheѝensuingѝenquiriesѝrevealedѝtheѝdarkerѝsideѝofѝtheѝcase.ѝ

Onѝtheѝ23rdѝMarchѝheѝwasѝchargedѝwithѝtheѝmurdersѝofѝBessieѝWilliams,ѝAliceѝSmith,ѝandѝMargaretѝLloyd.ѝHeѝwasѝeventuallyѝfoundѝguiltyѝ andѝsentencedѝtoѝdeath.ѝHeѝwasѝexecutedѝatѝMaidstoneѝGaolѝonѝ13ѝAugustѝ1915.ѝ

Charlesѝ Matthews,ѝ Directorѝ ofѝ Publicѝ Prosecutionsѝ wroteѝonѝ theѝ 1stѝ Julyѝ1915ѝtoѝtheѝCommissionerѝofѝtheѝMetropolitanѝPoliceѝconcerningѝ DivisionalѝDetectiveѝInspectorѝNeil:ѝ «IѝfeelѝIѝoughtѝnotѝtoѝallowѝanyѝintervalѝofѝtimeѝtoѝpassѝwithoutѝexpressingѝtheѝacknowledgementѝwhichѝinѝmyѝopinion,ѝtheѝadministrationѝofѝ justiceѝisѝunderѝtoѝDivisionalѝDetectiveѝInspectorѝNeil,ѝandѝtoѝtheѝofficersѝwhoѝservedѝunderѝhim,ѝforѝtheirѝuntiring,ѝable,ѝzealous,ѝandѝintelligentѝefforts,ѝwhichѝplayedѝsoѝconspicuousѝaѝpartѝinѝsecuringѝtheѝconvictionѝwhichѝwasѝthisѝdayѝobtainedѝofѝtheѝaboveѝnamedѝmalefactor.»ѝ Underѝ ordinaryѝ circumstancesѝ theѝ investigationѝ wouldѝ haveѝ beenѝ conductedѝbyѝaѝChiefѝInspectorѝfromѝtheѝCommissionersѝOffice,ѝbutѝitѝwasѝfeltѝ thatѝNeilѝhadѝsoѝmuchѝabilityѝitѝwasѝbetterѝtoѝleaveѝtheѝcaseѝinѝhisѝhands.ѝ Theѝcaseѝwasѝanѝintricateѝone,ѝandѝitѝisѝalarmingѝtoѝimagineѝhowѝfarѝ SmithѝmayѝhaveѝgoneѝhadѝCrossleyѝnotѝwrittenѝtheѝletterѝwhichѝledѝtoѝ hisѝdownfall.ѝ

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Lesson 15

Police and human rights

Lawѝenforcementѝofficialsѝshallѝrespectѝandѝprotectѝhumanѝdignity,ѝ andѝshallѝmaintainѝandѝupholdѝtheѝhumanѝrightsѝofѝallѝpersons.ѝ

Lawѝenforcementѝagenciesѝshallѝbeѝaccountableѝtoѝtheѝcommunityѝ asѝaѝwhole.ѝ

Effectiveѝmechanismsѝshallѝbeѝestablishedѝtoѝensureѝinternalѝdisciplineѝandѝexternalѝcontrol,ѝasѝwellѝasѝtheѝeffectiveѝsupervisionѝofѝlawѝ enforcementѝofficials.ѝ

Lawѝenforcementѝofficialsѝwhoѝhaveѝreasonѝtoѝbelieveѝthatѝaѝviolationѝhasѝ occurred,ѝorѝisѝaboutѝtoѝoccur,ѝshallѝreportѝtheѝmatter.ѝ

Provisionsѝshallѝbeѝmadeѝforѝtheѝreceiptѝandѝprocessingѝofѝcomplaintsѝ againstѝlawѝenforcementѝofficialsѝmadeѝbyѝmembersѝofѝtheѝpublic,ѝandѝ existenceѝofѝthoseѝprovisionsѝshallѝbeѝpublicized.ѝ

Investigationsѝ intoѝ violationsѝ shallѝ beѝ prompt,ѝ competent,ѝ thorough,ѝandѝimpartial.ѝ

Superiorѝofficersѝshallѝbeѝheldѝresponsibleѝforѝabusesѝifѝtheyѝknew,ѝorѝ shouldѝhaveѝknown,ѝofѝtheirѝoccurrenceѝandѝdidѝnotѝtakeѝaction.ѝ

Policeѝareѝtoѝreceiveѝimmunityѝfromѝprosecutionѝorѝdisciplineѝforѝ refusingѝunlawfulѝsuperiorѝorders.ѝ

Obedienceѝtoѝsuperiorѝordersѝshallѝnotѝbeѝaѝdefenceѝforѝviolationsѝ committedѝbyѝpolice.ѝ

Lesson 16

1. The extract from the book The Godfather (by Mario Puzo)

Amerigoѝ Bonaseraѝ satѝ inѝ Newѝ Yorkѝ Criminalѝ Courtѝ Numberѝ 3ѝ andѝ waitedѝforѝjustice;ѝvengeanceѝonѝtheѝmenѝwhoѝhadѝsoѝcruellyѝhurtѝhisѝ daughter,ѝwhoѝhadѝtriedѝtoѝdishonorѝher.ѝ Theѝjudge,ѝaѝformidablyѝheavy-featuredѝman,ѝrolledѝupѝtheѝsleevesѝofѝhisѝ blackѝrobeѝasѝifѝtoѝphysicallyѝchastiseѝtheѝtwoѝyoungѝmenѝstandingѝbeforeѝ theѝ bench.ѝ Hisѝ faceѝ wasѝ coldѝ withѝ majesticѝ contempt.ѝ Butѝ thereѝ wasѝ somethingѝfalseѝinѝallѝthisѝthatѝAmerigoѝBonaseraѝsensedѝbutѝdidѝnotѝyetѝ understand.ѝ

«Youѝactedѝlikeѝtheѝworstѝkindѝofѝdegenerates,ѝ«theѝjudgeѝsaidѝharshly.ѝ Yes,ѝyes,ѝthoughtѝAmerigoѝBonasera.ѝAnimals.ѝAnimals.ѝTheѝtwoѝyoungѝ men,ѝ glossyѝ hairѝ crewѝ cut,ѝ scrubbedѝ clean-cutѝ facesѝ composedѝ intoѝ humbleѝcontrition,ѝbowedѝtheirѝheadsѝinѝsubmission.ѝ

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Theѝjudgeѝwentѝon.ѝ«Youѝactedѝlikeѝwildѝbeastsѝmѝaѝjungleѝandѝyouѝareѝ fortunateѝyouѝdidѝnotѝsexuallyѝmolestѝthatѝpoorѝgirlѝorѝI'dѝputѝyouѝbehindѝbarsѝforѝtwentyѝyears.»ѝTheѝjudge,ѝpaused,ѝhisѝeyesѝbeneathѝimpressivelyѝ thickѝ browsѝ flickeredѝ slylyѝ towardѝ theѝ sallow-facedѝ Amerigoѝ Bonasera,ѝthenѝloweredѝtoѝaѝstackѝofѝprobationѝreportsѝbeforeѝhim.ѝHeѝ frownedѝandѝshruggedѝasѝifѝconvincedѝagainstѝhisѝownѝnaturalѝdesire.ѝHeѝ spokeѝagain.ѝ

«Butѝbecauseѝofѝyourѝyouth,ѝyourѝcleanѝrecords,ѝbecauseѝofѝyourѝfineѝ families,ѝandѝbecauseѝtheѝlawѝinѝitsѝmajestyѝdoesѝnotѝseekѝvengeance,ѝIѝ herebyѝsentenceѝyouѝtoѝthreeѝyears»ѝconfinementѝtoѝtheѝpenitentiary.ѝ Sentenceѝtoѝbeѝsuspended.»ѝ Onlyѝfortyѝyearsѝofѝprofessionalѝmourningѝkeptѝtheѝover-whelmingѝfrus- trationѝandѝhatredѝfromѝshowingѝonѝAmerigoѝBonaseraisѝface.ѝHisѝbeautifulѝyoungѝdaughterѝwasѝstillѝinѝtheѝhospitalѝwithѝherѝbrokenѝjawѝwiredѝ together;ѝandѝnowѝtheseѝtwoѝanimatesѝwentѝfree?ѝItѝhadѝallѝbeenѝaѝfarce.ѝ Heѝwatchedѝtheѝhappyѝparentsѝclusterѝaroundѝtheirѝdarlingѝsons.ѝ Oh,ѝtheyѝwereѝallѝhappyѝnow,ѝtheyѝwereѝsmilingѝnow.ѝѝ

Theѝ blackѝ bile,ѝ sourlyѝ bitter,ѝ roseѝ inѝ Bonasera'sѝ throat,ѝ overflowedѝ throughѝtightlyѝclenchedѝteeth.ѝHeѝusedѝhisѝwhiteѝlinenѝpocketѝhandkerchiefѝ andѝ heldѝ itѝ againstѝ hisѝ lips.ѝ Heѝ wasѝ standingѝ soѝ whenѝ theѝ twoѝ youngѝmenѝstrodeѝfreelyѝupѝtheѝaisle,ѝconfidentѝandѝcool-eyed,ѝsmiling,ѝ notѝgivingѝhimѝsoѝmuchѝasѝaѝglance.ѝHeѝletѝthemѝpassѝwithoutѝsayingѝaѝ word,ѝpressingѝtheѝfreshѝlinenѝagainstѝhisѝmouth.ѝ

Theѝparentsѝofѝtheѝanimalesѝwereѝcomingѝbyѝnow,ѝtwoѝmenѝandѝtwoѝ womenѝhisѝageѝbutѝmoreѝAmericanѝinѝtheirѝdress.ѝTheyѝglancedѝatѝhim,ѝ shamefaced,ѝyetѝinѝtheirѝeyesѝwasѝanѝodd,ѝtriumphantѝdefiance.ѝ

Outѝofѝcontrol,ѝBonaseraѝleanedѝforwardѝtowardѝtheѝaisleѝandѝshoutedѝ hoarsely,ѝ«YouѝwillѝweepѝasѝIѝhaveѝweptѝ—ѝIѝwillѝmakeѝyouѝweepѝasѝyourѝ childrenѝmakeѝmeѝweep»ѝ—ѝtheѝlinenѝatѝhisѝeyesѝnow.ѝTheѝdefenseѝat- torneysѝbringingѝupѝtheѝrearѝsweptѝtheirѝclientsѝforwardѝinѝaѝtightѝlittleѝ band,ѝenvelopingѝtheѝtwoѝyoungѝmen,ѝwhoѝhadѝstartedѝbackѝdownѝtheѝ aisleѝasѝifѝtoѝprotectѝtheirѝparents.ѝAѝhugeѝbailiffѝmovedѝquicklyѝtoѝblockѝ theѝrowѝinѝwhichѝBonaseraѝstood.ѝButѝitѝwasѝnotѝnecessary.ѝ AllѝhisѝyearsѝinѝAmerica,ѝAmerigoѝBonaseraѝhadѝtrustedѝinѝlawѝandѝorder.ѝAndѝheѝhadѝprosperedѝthereby.ѝNow,ѝthoughѝhisѝbrainѝsmokedѝwithѝ hatred,ѝthoughѝwildѝvisionsѝofѝbuyingѝaѝgunѝandѝkillingѝtheѝtwoѝyoungѝ menѝjangledѝtheѝveryѝbonesѝofѝhisѝskull,ѝBonaseraѝturnedѝtoѝhisѝstillѝuncomprehendingѝwifeѝandѝexplainedѝtoѝher,ѝ«Theyѝhaveѝmadeѝfoolsѝofѝ us.»ѝHeѝpausedѝandѝthenѝmadeѝhisѝdecision,ѝnoѝlongerѝfearingѝtheѝcost,ѝ «ForѝjusticeѝweѝmustѝgoѝonѝourѝkneesѝtoѝDonѝCorleone.»ѝ

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2. Burden of proof

Inѝcriminalѝlitigation,ѝtheѝburdenѝofѝproofѝisѝalwaysѝonѝtheѝstate.ѝTheѝ stateѝmustѝproveѝthatѝtheѝdefendantѝisѝguilty.ѝTheѝdefendantѝisѝassumedѝ toѝbeѝinnocent;ѝtheѝdefendantѝneedsѝtoѝproveѝnothing.ѝ(Thereѝareѝexceptions.ѝIfѝtheѝdefendantѝwishesѝtoѝclaimѝthatѝhe/sheѝisѝinsane,ѝandѝ thereforeѝnotѝguilty,ѝtheѝdefendantѝbearsѝtheѝburdenѝofѝprovingѝhis/herѝ insanity.ѝOtherѝexceptionsѝincludeѝdefendantsѝwhoѝclaimѝself-defenseѝorѝ duress.)ѝ

Inѝcriminalѝlitigation,ѝtheѝstateѝmustѝproveѝthatѝtheѝdefendantѝsatisfiedѝ eachѝelementѝofѝtheѝstatutoryѝdefinitionѝofѝtheѝcrime,ѝandѝtheѝdefendant'sѝparticipation,ѝ«beyondѝaѝreasonableѝdoubt.»ѝItѝisѝdifficultѝtoѝputѝaѝ validѝ numericalѝ valueѝ onѝ theѝ probabilityѝ thatѝ aѝ guiltyѝ personѝ reallyѝ committedѝtheѝcrime,ѝbutѝlegalѝauthoritiesѝwhoѝdoѝassignѝaѝnumericalѝ valueѝgenerallyѝsayѝ«atѝleastѝ98%ѝorѝ99%»ѝcertaintyѝofѝguilt.ѝ Inѝcivilѝlitigation,ѝtheѝburdenѝofѝproofѝisѝinitiallyѝonѝtheѝplaintiff.ѝHowever,ѝthereѝareѝaѝnumberѝofѝtechnicalѝsituationsѝinѝwhichѝtheѝburdenѝ shiftsѝ toѝ theѝ defendant.ѝ Forѝ example,ѝ whenѝ theѝ plaintiffѝ hasѝ madeѝ aѝ primaѝfacieѝcase,ѝtheѝburdenѝshiftsѝtoѝtheѝdefendantѝtoѝrefuteѝorѝrebutѝ theѝplaintiff'sѝevidence.ѝ Inѝcivilѝlitigation,ѝtheѝplaintiffѝwinsѝifѝtheѝpreponderanceѝofѝtheѝevidenceѝ favorsѝtheѝplaintiff.ѝForѝexample,ѝifѝtheѝjuryѝbelievesѝthatѝthereѝisѝmoreѝ thanѝaѝ50%ѝprobabilityѝthatѝtheѝdefendantѝwasѝnegligentѝinѝcausingѝtheѝ plaintiff'sѝinjury,ѝtheѝplaintiffѝwins.ѝThisѝisѝaѝveryѝlowѝstandard,ѝcomparedѝtoѝcriminalѝlaw.ѝItѝisѝtooѝlowѝaѝstandard,ѝespeciallyѝconsideringѝ thatѝtheѝdefendantѝcouldѝbeѝorderedѝtoѝpayѝmillionsѝofѝdollarsѝtoѝtheѝ plaintiffѝ(s).ѝѝ Aѝfewѝtortѝclaimsѝ(e.g.,ѝfraud)ѝrequireѝthatѝplaintiffѝproveѝhis/herѝcaseѝatѝ aѝlevelѝofѝ«clearѝandѝconvincingѝevidence»,ѝwhichѝisѝaѝstandardѝhigherѝ thanѝpreponderance,ѝbutѝlessѝthanѝ«beyondѝaѝreasonableѝdoubt.»ѝ

Protections for criminal defendants

AnyoneѝwhoѝhasѝstudiedѝcivicsѝinѝtheѝUSAѝknowsѝofѝaѝnumberѝofѝprotectionsѝspecifiedѝinѝtheѝU.S.ѝConstitution:ѝѝ

Noѝ exѝ postѝ factoѝ law.ѝ Ifѝ anѝ actѝ wasѝ lawfulѝ whenѝ itѝ wasѝ performed,ѝtheѝperformerѝcanѝnotѝbeѝconvictedѝofѝaѝcrimeѝasѝaѝresultѝofѝaѝlawѝenactedѝafterѝtheѝperformance.ѝѝ

prohibitionѝagainstѝ«unreasonableѝsearchesѝandѝseizures.ѝ

prohibitionѝofѝdoubleѝjeopardy.ѝThisѝprotectionѝtakesѝtwoѝforms:ѝѝ

1.Aѝdefendantѝwhoѝisѝfoundѝ«notѝguilty»ѝofѝaѝmoreѝseriousѝchargeѝcanѝ notѝhaveѝaѝsecondѝtrialѝonѝaѝlesserѝincludedѝoffense.ѝForѝexample,ѝifѝDѝisѝ foundѝ«notѝguilty»ѝonѝaѝchargeѝofѝfelonyѝmurderѝ(e.g.,ѝincidentalѝkillingѝ

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2. Theѝprosecutionѝcanѝnotѝappealѝaѝ«notѝguilty»ѝverdict.ѝOfѝcourse,ѝ theѝcriminalѝdefendantѝcanѝappealѝaѝ«guilty»ѝverdictѝandѝanѝincarceratedѝ criminalѝcanѝfileѝaѝ«habeasѝcorpus»ѝwrit.ѝ However,ѝitѝisѝpossibleѝtoѝtryѝaѝdefendantѝinѝcriminalѝcourtѝandѝthenѝtryѝ theѝsameѝdefendantѝagainѝinѝcivilѝcourt,ѝforѝtheѝsameѝevent.ѝ

prohibitionѝagainstѝcompelledѝself-incrimination.ѝ

theѝrightѝtoѝaѝspeedyѝtrial.ѝ

theѝrightѝtoѝtheѝassistanceѝofѝcounsel.ѝ

Indigentѝdefendantsѝhaveѝtheѝrightѝtoѝanѝattorneyѝwhoѝisѝpaidѝbyѝtheѝ state,ѝevenѝduringѝcustodialѝquestioningѝbyѝpolice.ѝ Theseѝprotectionsѝareѝnotѝavailableѝinѝcivilѝlaw.ѝTheѝprohibitionѝagainstѝ doubleѝjeopardyѝappliesѝonlyѝtoѝcriminalѝtrials.ѝTheѝcorrespondingѝconceptѝinѝcivilѝlitigationѝisѝresѝjudicata:ѝoneѝcanѝhaveѝonlyѝoneѝtrialѝforѝ claimsѝarisingѝfromѝoneѝtransactionѝorѝoccurrence.ѝѝ Inѝaѝcriminalѝcase,ѝtheѝsuspectѝorѝdefendantѝhasѝtheѝrightѝtoѝremainѝsilentѝduringѝquestioningѝbyѝpoliceѝandѝprosecutingѝattorneys.ѝInѝaѝcriminalѝcase,ѝtheѝdefendantѝmayѝchooseѝtoѝrefuseѝtoѝbeѝaѝwitness,ѝandѝtheѝ juryѝmayѝinferѝnothingѝfromѝtheѝdefendant'sѝchoiceѝnotѝtoѝtestify.ѝHowever,ѝinѝaѝcivilѝcase,ѝtheѝdefendantѝmustѝbeѝavailableѝandѝcooperativeѝforѝ testimonyѝasѝaѝwitnessѝinѝtheѝtrial.ѝTheѝdefendantѝinѝaѝcivilѝcaseѝmustѝ voluntarilyѝprovideѝnamesѝofѝpeopleѝwhoѝareѝ«likelyѝtoѝhaveѝdiscoverableѝinformationѝrelevantѝtoѝdisputedѝfactsѝallegedѝwithѝparticularityѝinѝ theѝpleadings.»ѝInѝotherѝwords,ѝtheѝdefendantѝinѝaѝcivilѝcaseѝmustѝhelpѝ his/herѝopponentѝcollectѝevidenceѝthatѝwillѝdefeatѝtheѝdefendant.ѝ Peopleѝwhoѝcanѝnotѝpayѝforѝanѝattorneyѝ(legalѝfeesѝforѝtrialѝpreparationѝ oftenѝrunѝtoѝmoreѝthanѝUS$100,000)ѝareѝpracticallyѝunableѝtoѝobtainѝ accessѝtoѝtheѝcourtsѝinѝcivilѝcases.ѝ

Theѝoneѝnotableѝexceptionѝisѝinѝtortѝlaw,ѝwhereѝattorneysѝforѝplaintiffsѝ oftenѝtakeѝcasesѝwithѝtheѝpossibilityѝofѝlargeѝawardsѝ(e.g.,ѝmoreѝthanѝ US$500,000)ѝonѝaѝcontingencyѝfee:ѝtheѝattorneyѝisѝpaid,ѝforѝexample,ѝ 1/3ѝofѝanyѝaward,ѝbutѝtheѝattorneyѝisѝpaidѝnothingѝforѝhis/herѝtimeѝifѝ plaintiffѝloses.ѝHowever,ѝtheѝplaintiffѝusuallyѝpaysѝforѝexpertѝwitnesses,ѝ depositionѝtranscripts,ѝandѝotherѝexpenses.ѝ

Lesson 17

1. Criminal law

Theѝ termѝ criminalѝ law,ѝ sometimesѝ calledѝ penalѝ law,ѝ refersѝ toѝ anyѝ ofѝ variousѝbodiesѝofѝrulesѝinѝdifferentѝjurisdictionsѝwhoseѝcommonѝcharac-

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teristicѝisѝtheѝpotentialѝforѝuniqueѝandѝoftenѝsevereѝimpositionsѝasѝpunishmentѝforѝfailureѝtoѝcomply.ѝѝ

Criminalѝpunishment, dependingѝonѝtheѝoffenseѝandѝjurisdiction,ѝmayѝ includeѝ execution,ѝ lossѝ ofѝ liberty,ѝ governmentѝ supervisionѝ (paroleѝ orѝ probation),ѝorѝfines.ѝThereѝareѝsomeѝarchetypalѝcrimes,ѝlikeѝmurder,ѝbutѝ theѝactsѝthatѝareѝforbiddenѝareѝnotѝwhollyѝconsistentѝbetweenѝdifferentѝ criminalѝcodes,ѝandѝevenѝwithinѝaѝparticularѝcodeѝlinesѝmayѝbeѝblurredѝ asѝcivilѝinfractionsѝmayѝgiveѝriseѝalsoѝtoѝcriminalѝconsequences.ѝCriminalѝlawѝtypicallyѝisѝenforcedѝbyѝtheѝgovernment,ѝunlikeѝtheѝcivilѝlaw,ѝ whichѝmayѝbeѝenforcedѝbyѝprivateѝparties.ѝ

Criminal law history

Theѝ firstѝ civilizationsѝ generallyѝ didѝ notѝ distinguishѝ betweenѝ civilѝ andѝ criminalѝ law.ѝ Theѝ firstѝ writtenѝ codesѝ ofѝ lawѝ wereѝ producedѝ byѝ theѝ Sumerians.ѝ Aroundѝ 2100—2050ѝ BCѝ Ur-Nammu,ѝ theѝ Neo-Sumerianѝ kingѝofѝUr,ѝenactedѝtheѝoldestѝwrittenѝlegalѝcodeѝwhoseѝtextѝhasѝbeenѝ discovered:ѝ theѝ Codeѝ ofѝ Ur-Nammuѝ althoughѝ anѝ earlierѝ codeѝ ofѝ UrukaginaѝofѝLagashѝisѝalsoѝknownѝtoѝhaveѝexisted.ѝAnotherѝimportantѝ earlyѝcodeѝwasѝtheѝCodeѝHammurabi,ѝwhichѝformedѝtheѝcoreѝofѝBabylonianѝlaw.ѝTheseѝearlyѝlegalѝcodesѝdidѝnotѝseparateѝpenalѝandѝcivilѝlaws.ѝ TheѝsimilarlyѝsignificantѝCommentariesѝofѝGaiusѝonѝtheѝTwelveѝTablesѝ alsoѝconflatedѝtheѝcivilѝandѝcriminalѝaspects,ѝtreatingѝtheftѝorѝfurtumѝasѝaѝ tort.ѝAssaultѝandѝviolentѝrobberyѝwereѝanalogizedѝtoѝtrespassѝasѝtoѝproperty.ѝBreachѝofѝsuchѝlawsѝcreatedѝanѝobligationѝofѝlawѝorѝvinculumѝjurisѝ dischargedѝbyѝpaymentѝofѝmonetaryѝcompensationѝorѝdamages.ѝ TheѝfirstѝsignsѝofѝtheѝmodernѝdistinctionѝbetweenѝcrimesѝandѝcivilѝmattersѝemergedѝduringѝtheѝNormanѝInvasionѝofѝEngland.ѝTheѝspecialѝnotionѝofѝcriminalѝpenalty,ѝatѝleastѝconcerningѝEurope,ѝaroseѝinѝSpanishѝ LateѝScholasticism,ѝwhenѝtheѝtheologicalѝnotionѝofѝGod'sѝpenaltyѝthatѝ wasѝinflictedѝsolelyѝforѝaѝguiltyѝmind,ѝbecameѝtransfusedѝintoѝcanonѝlawѝ firstѝand,ѝfinally,ѝtoѝsecularѝcriminalѝlaw.ѝTheѝdevelopmentѝofѝtheѝstateѝ dispensingѝjusticeѝinѝaѝcourtѝclearlyѝemergedѝinѝtheѝeighteenthѝcenturyѝ whenѝEuropeanѝcountriesѝbeganѝmaintainingѝpoliceѝservices.ѝFromѝthisѝ point,ѝcriminalѝlawѝhadѝformalizedѝtheѝmechanismsѝforѝenforcement,ѝ whichѝallowedѝforѝitsѝdevelopmentѝasѝaѝdiscernibleѝentity.ѝ

Criminal sanctions

Criminalѝ lawѝ isѝ distinctiveѝ forѝ theѝ uniquelyѝ seriousѝ potentialѝ consequencesѝorѝsanctionsѝ forѝfailureѝ toѝabideѝbyѝ itsѝ rules.ѝEveryѝ crimeѝ isѝ composedѝofѝcriminalѝelements.ѝCapitalѝpunishmentѝmayѝbeѝimposedѝinѝ someѝ jurisdictionsѝ forѝ theѝ mostѝ seriousѝ crimes.ѝ Physicalѝ orѝ corporalѝ

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punishmentѝmayѝbeѝimposed,ѝalthoughѝtheseѝpunishmentsѝareѝprohibitedѝinѝmuchѝofѝtheѝworld.ѝIndividualsѝmayѝbeѝincarceratedѝinѝprisonѝorѝ jailѝinѝaѝvarietyѝofѝconditionsѝdependingѝonѝtheѝjurisdiction.ѝConfinementѝmayѝbeѝsolitary.ѝLengthѝofѝincarcerationѝmayѝvaryѝfromѝaѝdayѝtoѝ life.ѝGovernmentѝsupervisionѝmayѝbeѝimposed,ѝincludingѝhouseѝarrest,ѝ andѝconvictsѝmayѝbeѝrequiredѝtoѝconformѝtoѝparticularizedѝguidelinesѝasѝ partѝofѝaѝparoleѝorѝprobationѝregimen.ѝFinesѝalsoѝmayѝbeѝimposed,ѝseizingѝmoneyѝorѝpropertyѝfromѝaѝpersonѝconvictedѝofѝaѝcrime.ѝ

Criminal law vs. Civil law

Criminalѝlawѝisѝmuchѝbetterѝknownѝtoѝlaymenѝthanѝcivilѝlaw,ѝasѝaѝresultѝ ofѝjournalists»ѝreportsѝofѝfamousѝcriminalѝtrials.ѝPeopleѝoftenѝmisapplyѝ principlesѝfromѝcriminalѝlawѝtoѝsituationsѝinѝcivilѝ(e.g.,ѝtort)ѝlaw,ѝwhichѝ resultsѝinѝtheirѝmisunderstanding.ѝTheyѝareѝsurprisedѝwhenѝtheyѝlearnѝ theѝactualѝlegalѝprinciplesѝthatѝapplyѝtoѝaѝproblem.ѝ

Inѝcivilѝlaw,ѝaѝprivateѝpartyѝ(e.g.,ѝaѝcorporationѝorѝindividualѝperson)ѝ filesѝtheѝlawsuitѝandѝbecomesѝtheѝplaintiff.ѝInѝcriminalѝlaw,ѝtheѝlitigationѝ isѝalwaysѝfiledѝbyѝtheѝgovernment,ѝwhoѝisѝcalledѝtheѝprosecution.ѝ

2. Rehabilitation

Rehabilitationѝmeansѝtoѝrestoreѝtoѝusefulѝlife,ѝasѝthroughѝtherapyѝandѝeducationѝorѝtoѝrestoreѝtoѝgoodѝcondition,ѝoperation,ѝorѝcapacity.ѝTheѝassumptionѝ ofѝrehabilitationѝisѝthatѝpeopleѝareѝnotѝnativelyѝcriminalѝandѝthatѝitѝisѝpossibleѝtoѝrestoreѝaѝcriminalѝtoѝaѝusefulѝlife,ѝtoѝaѝlifeѝinѝwhichѝtheyѝcontributeѝ toѝthemselvesѝandѝtoѝsociety.ѝRatherѝthanѝpunishingѝtheѝharmѝoutѝofѝaѝ criminal,ѝrehabilitationѝwouldѝseek,ѝbyѝmeansѝofѝeducationѝorѝtherapy,ѝtoѝ bringѝaѝcriminalѝintoѝaѝmoreѝnormalѝstateѝofѝmind,ѝorѝintoѝanѝattitudeѝ whichѝwouldѝbeѝhelpfulѝtoѝsociety,ѝratherѝthanѝbeѝharmfulѝtoѝsociety.ѝ

ѝ

CriminologyѝandѝPenologyѝ

ѝ

Thisѝtheoryѝofѝpunishmentѝisѝbasedѝonѝtheѝnotionѝthatѝpunishmentѝisѝtoѝ beѝinflictedѝonѝanѝoffenderѝsoѝasѝtoѝreformѝhim/her,ѝorѝrehabilitateѝthemѝ soѝasѝtoѝmakeѝtheirѝre-integrationѝintoѝsocietyѝeasier.ѝPunishmentsѝthatѝ

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areѝinѝaccordanceѝwithѝthisѝtheoryѝareѝcommunityѝservice,ѝprobationѝ orders,ѝandѝanyѝformѝofѝpunishmentѝwhichѝentailsѝanyѝformѝofѝguidanceѝ andѝaftercareѝtowardsѝtheѝoffender.ѝ

Thisѝtheoryѝisѝfoundedѝonѝtheѝbeliefѝthatѝoneѝcannotѝinflictѝaѝsevereѝ punishmentѝofѝimprisonmentѝandѝexpectѝtheѝoffenderѝtoѝbeѝreformedѝ andѝtoѝbeѝableѝtoѝre-integrateѝintoѝsocietyѝuponѝhisѝrelease.ѝAlthoughѝtheѝ importanceѝofѝinflictingѝpunishmentѝonѝthoseѝpersonsѝwhoѝbreachѝtheѝ law,ѝsoѝasѝtoѝmaintainѝsocialѝorder,ѝisѝretained,ѝtheѝimportanceѝofѝrehabilitationѝ isѝ alsoѝ givenѝ priority.ѝ Humanitariansѝ have,ѝ overѝ theѝ years,ѝ supportedѝrehabilitationѝasѝanѝalternative,ѝevenѝforѝcapitalѝpunishment.ѝ

Practical difficulties

Rehabilitationѝtheoriesѝpresentѝtheѝfollowingѝdeficiencies:ѝ 1)ѝthereѝisѝnoѝsoundѝscientificѝresearchѝtoѝdetermineѝhowѝdifferentѝindividualsѝreactѝtoѝtheѝsameѝrehabilitatingѝmethods;ѝ

2)ѝ rehabilitationѝ mayѝ dependѝ onѝ theѝ individualѝ psychologicalѝ background,ѝhenceѝonѝhisѝparticularѝmotivesѝtoѝcommitѝcrimes,ѝthanѝonѝtheѝ rehabilitatingѝmethodsѝorѝphilosophy;ѝ 3)ѝaѝrehabilitationѝprogramѝmayѝproveѝtoѝbeѝtooѝcostlyѝandѝcomplexѝtoѝ beѝsuccessfullyѝimplementedѝinѝmostѝcountries;ѝ 4)ѝrehabilitationѝmustѝreferѝtoѝtheѝsociologicalѝfindingsѝonѝtheѝsocializa- tionѝandѝresocializationѝprocesses,ѝasѝchangeѝinѝlife-longѝsociallyѝac- quiredѝpatternsѝofѝbehaviorѝandѝvaluesѝentailsѝaѝmuchѝmoreѝcomplexѝ—ѝ andѝsometimeѝtraumaticѝ—ѝchangeѝonѝtheѝindividual'sѝstructureѝofѝchar- acter.ѝOnѝtheѝotherѝhandѝrehabilitationѝandѝrecidivismѝareѝtwoѝinteractingѝsideѝofѝaѝsystemѝthatѝcanѝnotѝbeѝseparated.ѝOneѝimportantѝaspectѝofѝ rehabilitationѝthatѝhasѝbeenѝneglectedѝbyѝscholarsѝofѝrecentѝpastѝisѝtheѝ roleѝofѝtheѝpublicѝinѝtheѝrehabilitationѝchain.ѝTheѝpublicѝoccupiesѝtheѝ topmostѝpositionѝinѝthisѝchainѝsinceѝrehabilitationѝisѝnotѝdoneѝinѝaѝvac- uum.ѝHowѝtheyѝrespondѝtoѝexѝ—ѝconvictsѝandѝtreatmentѝmetedѝagainstѝ themѝdeterminesѝthereѝpronenessѝtoѝrecidivism.ѝ

3. Punishment

Oneѝofѝtheѝmostѝfundamentalѝdistinctionsѝbetweenѝcivilѝandѝcriminalѝ lawѝisѝinѝtheѝnotionѝofѝpunishment.ѝInѝcriminalѝlaw,ѝaѝguiltyѝdefendantѝ isѝpunishedѝbyѝeitherѝ(1)ѝincarcerationѝinѝaѝjailѝorѝprison,ѝ(2)ѝfineѝpaidѝtoѝ theѝgovernment,ѝor,ѝinѝexceptionalѝcases,ѝ(3)ѝexecutionѝofѝtheѝdefendant:ѝtheѝdeathѝpenalty.ѝCrimesѝareѝdividedѝintoѝtwoѝbroadѝclasses:ѝfeloniesѝhaveѝaѝmaximumѝpossibleѝsentenceѝofѝmoreѝthanѝoneѝyearѝincarceration,ѝmisdemeanorsѝhaveѝaѝmaximumѝpossibleѝsentenceѝofѝlessѝthanѝ oneѝyearѝincarceration.ѝѝ

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Inѝ contrast,ѝ aѝ defendantѝ inѝ civilѝ litigationѝ isѝ neverѝ incarceratedѝ andѝ neverѝexecuted.ѝInѝgeneral,ѝaѝlosingѝdefendantѝinѝcivilѝlitigationѝonlyѝ reimbursesѝtheѝplaintiffѝforѝlossesѝcausedѝbyѝtheѝdefendant'sѝbehavior.ѝ So-calledѝpunitiveѝdamagesѝareѝneverѝawardedѝinѝaѝcivilѝcaseѝunderѝcon- tractѝlaw.ѝInѝaѝcivilѝcaseѝunderѝtortѝlaw,ѝthereѝisѝaѝpossibilityѝofѝpunitiveѝ damages.ѝTheѝuseѝofѝpunitiveѝdamagesѝmakesѝaѝpublicѝexampleѝofѝtheѝ defendantѝ andѝ supposedlyѝ detersѝ futureѝ wrongfulѝ conductѝ byѝ others.ѝ Punitiveѝ damagesѝ areѝ particularlyѝ importantѝ inѝ tortsѝ involvingѝ civilѝ rights,ѝwhereѝtheѝactualѝmonetaryѝinjuryѝtoѝplaintiffѝ(s)ѝmayѝbeѝsmall.ѝ Whileѝaѝcourtѝcanѝorderѝaѝdefendantѝtoѝpayѝdamages,ѝtheѝplaintiffѝmayѝ receiveѝnothingѝifѝtheѝdefendantѝhasѝnoѝassetsѝandѝnoѝinsurance,ѝorѝifѝ theѝdefendantѝisѝskillfulѝinѝconcealingѝassets.ѝ

Effect of punishment

Theѝnotionѝthatѝtheѝthreatѝofѝpunishmentѝwillѝdeterѝcriminalѝconductѝisѝ basedѝ onѝ theѝ principleѝ thatѝ humanѝ beingsѝ areѝ rational.ѝ Inѝ practice,ѝ criminalsѝareѝeitherѝimpulsiveѝorѝbelieveѝthatѝtheyѝwillѝnotѝbeѝcaughtѝbyѝ theѝpolice.ѝTherefore,ѝtheѝthreatѝofѝpunishmentѝdoesѝnotѝdeterѝcriminalѝ conduct,ѝasѝoneѝisѝremindedѝeveryѝdayѝbyѝreadingѝreportsѝofѝjournalists.ѝѝ Legalѝtheoryѝconsidersѝtheѝpossibilityѝofѝlossѝofѝfreedomѝ(i.e.,ѝincarceration)ѝasѝmuchѝmoreѝseriousѝthanѝmerelyѝpayingѝdamagesѝtoѝanѝinjuredѝ plaintiff.ѝAsѝaѝresultѝofѝthisѝhighѝvalueѝplacedѝonѝpersonalѝfreedom,ѝlegalѝ dogmaѝisѝthatѝcriminalѝlitigationѝisѝmoreѝseriousѝthanѝcivilѝlitigation;ѝ thereforeѝ criminalѝ defendantsѝ haveѝ moreѝ rightsѝ andѝ protectionsѝ thanѝ civilѝdefendants.ѝTheѝeconomicѝrealityѝisѝthatѝmostѝpeopleѝwouldѝpreferѝ toѝspend,ѝforѝexample,ѝoneѝyearѝinѝprison,ѝthanѝpayѝaѝmillionѝdollarsѝ fromѝtheirѝpersonalѝassets.ѝ

Lesson 18

Aѝconditionalѝdischargeѝisѝaѝsentenceѝpassedѝbyѝaѝcourtѝwherebyѝtheѝdefendantѝisѝnotѝpunishedѝprovidedѝheѝorѝsheѝcompliesѝwithѝcertainѝconditions.ѝInѝEnglandѝandѝWales,ѝaѝconditionalѝdischargeѝisѝaѝsentenceѝinѝ whichѝtheѝoffenderѝreceivesѝnoѝpunishmentѝprovidedѝthat,ѝinѝaѝperiodѝ setѝbyѝtheѝcourtѝ(notѝmoreѝthanѝthreeѝyears),ѝnoѝfurtherѝoffenceѝisѝcommitted.ѝIfѝanѝoffenceѝisѝcommittedѝinѝthatѝtime,ѝthenѝtheѝoffenderѝmayѝ alsoѝbeѝsentencedѝforѝtheѝoffenceѝforѝwhichѝaѝconditionalѝdischargeѝwasѝ given.ѝInѝEnglishѝconditionalѝdischarges,ѝaѝconvictionѝandѝrecordѝofѝtheѝ dischargeѝbecomesѝpartѝofѝtheѝoffender'sѝcriminalѝrecord,ѝbutѝdoesѝnotѝ countѝasѝaѝconvictionѝexceptѝforѝcertainѝpurposesѝwithinѝtheѝcriminalѝ justiceѝsystemѝ(unlessѝtheѝoffenderѝisѝresentencedѝforѝreoffending).ѝ

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Anѝabsoluteѝdischargeѝisѝaѝlesserѝsentenceѝimposedѝbyѝaѝcourt,ѝinѝwhichѝ noѝpenaltyѝisѝimposedѝatѝall.ѝItѝisѝnormallyѝpassedѝwhenѝaѝdefendantѝisѝ beingѝsentencedѝforѝmoreѝthanѝoneѝcrime:ѝafterѝreceivingѝaѝheavierѝsentenceѝforѝhisѝmostѝseriousѝcrime,ѝheѝmayѝthenѝreceiveѝnoѝseparateѝpenaltyѝforѝaѝmoreѝtrivialѝcrimeѝAnѝabsoluteѝdischargeѝisѝunconditional:ѝinѝ someѝjurisdictions,ѝwhereѝnoѝconditionsѝareѝimposedѝatѝall,ѝinѝothersѝ whereѝtheѝconditionsѝhaveѝbeenѝsuccessfullyѝcompliedѝwith.ѝ

Admonitionѝ(orѝ«beingѝadmonished»)ѝisѝaѝpunishmentѝunderѝScotsѝlawѝ whenѝanѝoffenderѝhasѝbeenѝfoundѝguiltyѝbutѝisѝneitherѝimprisonedѝnorѝ finedѝbutѝreceivesѝaѝverbalѝwarningѝandѝisѝafterwardsѝsetѝfree.ѝTheѝconvictionѝisѝstillѝrecorded.ѝ

Aѝ«deferredѝsentence»ѝisѝaѝwayѝtoѝkeepѝtabsѝonѝsomeoneѝbyѝmeansѝofѝ probation/houseѝarrest,ѝifѝtheѝguiltyѝpartyѝcompletesѝtheѝprobationaryѝ termѝsuccessfully,ѝtheѝchargesѝareѝdroppedѝandѝyouѝareѝfreeѝtoѝgoѝwithѝaѝ cleanѝ record.ѝ Theѝ personѝ canѝ thenѝ denyѝ everѝ beingѝ convictedѝ ofѝ aѝ criminalѝoffense.ѝItѝisѝalsoѝknownѝasѝanѝ«InѝLieuѝofѝConviction»ѝtypeѝ ruling,ѝitѝisѝanѝalternativeѝtoѝgoingѝtoѝjailѝ/ѝprisionѝforѝpreviouslyѝlawѝ abidingѝcitizens.ѝIfѝtheѝpersonѝviolatesѝhis/orѝprobation,ѝtheѝconvictionѝ willѝstandѝandѝtheyѝwillѝbeѝchargedѝandѝsentenced.ѝ

Aѝsuspendedѝsentenceѝisѝaѝsentenceѝgivenѝafterѝtheѝformalѝconvictionѝofѝ aѝcrimeѝthatѝtheѝconvictedѝpersonѝisѝnotѝrequiredѝtoѝserve.ѝ

Inѝcriminalѝcasesѝaѝtrialѝjudgeѝhasѝtheѝabilityѝtoѝsuspendѝtheѝsentenceѝofѝ aѝ convictedѝ person.ѝ Thereѝ areѝ twoѝ typesѝ ofѝ suspendedѝ sentences.ѝ Aѝ judgeѝ mayѝ unconditionallyѝ dischargeѝ theѝ defendantѝ ofѝ allѝ obligationsѝ andѝrestraints.ѝAnѝunconditionallyѝsuspendedѝsentenceѝendsѝtheѝcourtѝ system'sѝinvolvementѝinѝtheѝmatter,ѝandѝtheѝdefendantѝhasѝnoѝpenaltyѝtoѝ pay.ѝHowever,ѝtheѝdefendant'sѝcriminalѝconvictionѝwillѝremainѝpartѝofѝ theѝ publicѝ record.ѝ Aѝ judgeѝ mayѝ alsoѝ issueѝ aѝ conditionallyѝ suspendedѝ sentence.ѝThisѝtypeѝofѝsentenceѝwithholdsѝexecutionѝofѝtheѝpenaltyѝasѝ longѝasѝtheѝdefendantѝexhibitsѝgoodѝbehavior.ѝForѝexample,ѝifѝaѝpersonѝ wasѝconvictedѝofѝshopliftingѝforѝtheѝfirstѝtime,ѝtheѝjudgeѝcouldѝimposeѝ thirtyѝdaysѝofѝincarcerationѝasѝaѝpenaltyѝandѝthenѝsuspendѝtheѝimprisonmentѝonѝtheѝconditionѝthatѝtheѝdefendantѝnotѝcommitѝanyѝcrimesѝ duringѝtheѝnextѝyear.ѝOnceѝtheѝyearѝpassesѝwithoutѝincident,ѝtheѝpenaltyѝ isѝdischarged.ѝIf,ѝhowever,ѝtheѝdefendantѝdoesѝcommitѝanotherѝcrime,ѝ theѝjudgeѝisѝentitledѝtoѝrevokeѝtheѝsuspensionѝandѝhaveѝtheѝdefendantѝ serveѝtheѝthirtyѝdaysѝinѝjail.ѝ

Probationѝisѝaѝsentenceѝwhichѝmayѝbeѝimposedѝbyѝaѝcourtѝinѝlieuѝofѝincarceration.ѝAѝcriminalѝwhoѝisѝ«onѝprobation»ѝhasѝbeenѝconvictedѝofѝaѝ crimeѝbutѝhasѝservedѝonlyѝpartѝofѝtheѝsentenceѝinѝjail,ѝorѝhasѝnotѝservedѝ timeѝatѝall.ѝInѝmostѝjurisdictions,ѝprobationѝisѝaѝsentencingѝoptionѝforѝ

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misdemeanorsѝandѝmanyѝfeloniesѝ(theseѝareѝcommonlyѝcalledѝ«proba- tionable»ѝoffenses),ѝbutѝnotѝforѝhigher-orderѝfelonies,ѝsuchѝasѝcapitalѝ crimes,ѝforcibleѝrape,ѝandѝmanyѝothers.ѝ

Anѝoffenderѝonѝprobationѝisѝorderedѝtoѝfollowѝcertainѝconditionsѝforthѝ byѝtheѝcourt,ѝunderѝtheѝsupervisionѝofѝaѝprobationѝofficer.ѝHeѝorѝsheѝisѝ ordinarilyѝrequiredѝtoѝrefrainѝfromѝsubsequentѝcriminalѝactivityѝorѝpossessionѝofѝfirearms,ѝandѝmayѝbeѝorderedѝtoѝremainѝemployed,ѝabideѝtoѝaѝ curfew,ѝliveѝatѝaѝdirectedѝplace,ѝobeyѝtheѝordersѝofѝtheѝprobationѝofficer,ѝ orѝnotѝleaveѝtheѝjurisdiction.ѝTheѝprobationerѝmayѝbeѝorderedѝasѝwellѝtoѝ refrainѝfromѝcontactѝwithѝtheѝvictimsѝ(suchѝasѝaѝformerѝpartnerѝinѝaѝdomesticѝviolenceѝcase),ѝwithѝpotentialѝvictimsѝofѝsimilarѝcrimesѝ(suchѝasѝ minors,ѝ ifѝ theѝ instantѝ offenseѝ involvesѝ childѝ sexualѝ abuse),ѝ orѝ withѝ knownѝcriminals,ѝparticularlyѝco-defendants.ѝTheѝoffenderѝonѝproba- tionѝ mayѝ beѝ fittedѝ withѝ anѝ electronicѝ tag,ѝ whichѝ signalsѝ herѝ orѝ hisѝ whereaboutsѝtoѝofficials,ѝandѝitѝisѝveryѝcommonѝforѝoffendersѝtoѝbeѝorderedѝtoѝsubmitѝtoѝalcohol/drugѝtestingѝorѝtoѝparticipateѝinѝalcohol/drugѝ orѝpsychologicalѝtreatment,ѝorѝtoѝperformѝCommunityѝServiceѝwork.ѝ

Inѝjusticeѝandѝlaw,ѝhouseѝarrestѝ(alsoѝcalledѝhomeѝconfinement,ѝhomeѝ detention,ѝorѝelectronicѝmonitoring)ѝisѝaѝmeasureѝbyѝwhichѝaѝpersonѝisѝ confinedѝbyѝtheѝauthoritiesѝtoѝhisѝorѝherѝresidence.ѝTravelѝisѝusuallyѝrestricted,ѝifѝallowedѝatѝall.ѝHouseѝarrestѝisѝaѝlenientѝalternativeѝtoѝprisonѝ timeѝorѝjuvenile-detentionѝtime.ѝ

CommunityѝServiceѝOrderѝrequiresѝyouѝtoѝdoѝunpaidѝworkѝinѝtheѝcommunity.ѝItѝcanѝbeѝgivenѝtoѝsomeoneѝagedѝ16ѝorѝoverѝconvictedѝofѝanѝimprisonableѝoffenceѝifѝtheѝoffenderѝconsentsѝandѝmayѝbeѝbetweenѝfortyѝ (40)ѝandѝtwoѝhundredѝ&ѝfortyѝ(240)ѝhoursѝduration.ѝProbationѝOfficersѝ organizeѝwhatѝworkѝisѝtoѝbeѝdoneѝandѝensureѝoffendersѝattendѝandѝworkѝ toѝstandards.ѝTheѝrangeѝofѝworkѝcarriedѝoutѝbyѝtheѝoffenderѝisѝvaried,ѝforѝ example;ѝassistingѝatѝsocialѝclubsѝforѝolderѝpeopleѝorѝpeopleѝwithѝdisabilities,ѝpaintingѝandѝdecoratingѝwork,ѝgardeningѝandѝlandscapingѝetc.ѝ

Lesson 19

Famous Cases: Alphonse Capone, aka. Al, Scarface

BornѝinѝBrooklyn,ѝNewѝYork,ѝinѝ1899,ѝofѝanѝimmigrantѝfamily,ѝAlѝCaponeѝquitѝschoolѝafterѝtheѝsixthѝgradeѝandѝassociatedѝwithѝaѝnotoriousѝ streetѝgang,ѝbecomingѝacceptedѝasѝaѝmember.ѝJohnnyѝTorrioѝwasѝtheѝ streetѝgangѝleader.ѝAboutѝ1920,ѝatѝTorrio'sѝinvitation,ѝCaponeѝjoinedѝ TorrioѝinѝChicagoѝwhereѝheѝhadѝbecomeѝanѝinfluentialѝlieutenantѝinѝtheѝ Colosimoѝmob.ѝTheѝracketsѝspawnedѝbyѝenactmentѝofѝtheѝProhibitionѝ

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Amendment,ѝillegalѝbrewingѝandѝdistributionѝofѝbeerѝandѝliquor,ѝwereѝ viewedѝasѝ«growthѝindustries.»ѝTorrio,ѝabettedѝbyѝAlѝCapone,ѝintendedѝ toѝtakeѝfullѝadvantageѝofѝopportunities.ѝTheѝmobsѝalsoѝdevelopedѝinterestsѝinѝlegitimateѝbusinesses,ѝinѝtheѝcleaningѝandѝdyeingѝfield,ѝandѝcultivatedѝinfluenceѝwithѝreceptiveѝpublicѝofficials,ѝlaborѝunionsѝandѝem-

ployees»ѝassociations.ѝ

Inѝ 1925,ѝ Caponeѝ becameѝ bossѝwhenѝTorrio,ѝseriouslyѝ woundedѝ inѝ anѝ assassinationѝ attempt,ѝ surrenderedѝ controlѝ andѝ retiredѝ toѝ Brooklyn.ѝ Caponeѝ hadѝ builtѝaѝfearsomeѝreputationѝ inѝ theѝ ruthlessѝ gangѝ rivalriesѝ ofѝ theѝ period,ѝ strugglingѝtoѝacquireѝandѝretainѝ «racketeeringѝ rights»ѝ toѝ severalѝ areasѝ ofѝ Chicago.ѝ

PerhapsѝtheѝSt.ѝValentine'sѝDayѝMassacreѝonѝFebruaryѝ14,ѝ1929,ѝmightѝ beѝregardedѝasѝtheѝculminatingѝviolenceѝofѝtheѝChicagoѝgangѝera,ѝasѝ sevenѝmembersѝorѝassociatesѝofѝtheѝ«Bugs»ѝMoranѝmobѝwereѝmachinegunnedѝagainstѝaѝgarageѝwallѝbyѝrivalsѝposingѝasѝpolice.ѝTheѝmassacreѝ wasѝ generallyѝ ascribedѝ toѝ theѝ Caponeѝ mob,ѝ althoughѝ Alѝ himselfѝ wasѝ thenѝinѝFlorida.ѝ

TheѝinvestigativeѝjurisdictionѝofѝtheѝBureauѝofѝInvestigationѝduringѝtheѝ 1920sѝandѝearlyѝ1930sѝwasѝmoreѝlimitedѝthanѝitѝisѝnow,ѝandѝtheѝgangѝ warfareѝandѝdepredationsѝofѝtheѝperiodѝwereѝnotѝwithinѝtheѝBureau'sѝ investigativeѝauthority.ѝ

TheѝBureau'sѝinvestigationѝofѝAlѝCaponeѝaroseѝfromѝhisѝreluctanceѝtoѝ appearѝbeforeѝaѝFederalѝGrandѝJuryѝonѝMarchѝ12,ѝ1929,ѝinѝresponseѝtoѝ aѝsubpoena.ѝCaponeѝappearedѝbeforeѝtheѝFederalѝGrandѝJuryѝatѝChicagoѝonѝMarchѝ20,ѝ1929,ѝandѝcompletedѝhisѝtestimonyѝonѝMarchѝ27.ѝAsѝ heѝ leftѝ theѝ courtroom,ѝ heѝ wasѝ arrestedѝ byѝ Agentsѝ forѝ Contemptѝ ofѝ Court,ѝanѝoffenseѝforѝwhichѝtheѝpenaltyѝcouldѝbeѝoneѝyearѝandѝaѝ$1,000ѝ fine.ѝHeѝpostedѝ$5,000ѝbondѝandѝwasѝreleased.ѝ

OnѝMayѝ17,ѝ1929,ѝAlѝCaponeѝandѝhisѝbodyguardѝwereѝarrestedѝinѝPhiladelphiaѝforѝcarryingѝconcealedѝdeadlyѝweapons.ѝWithinѝ16ѝhoursѝtheyѝ hadѝbeenѝsentencedѝtoѝtermsѝofѝoneѝyearѝeach.ѝCaponeѝservedѝhisѝtimeѝ andѝwasѝreleasedѝinѝnineѝmonthsѝforѝgoodѝbehaviorѝonѝMarchѝ17,ѝ1930.ѝ

OnѝFebruaryѝ28,ѝ1931,ѝCaponeѝwasѝfoundѝguiltyѝinѝFederalѝCourtѝonѝ theѝ Contemptѝ ofѝ Courtѝ chargeѝ andѝ wasѝ sentencedѝ toѝ sixѝ monthsѝ inѝ

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Cookѝ Countyѝ Jail.ѝ Hisѝ appealѝ onѝ thatѝ chargeѝ wasѝ subsequentlyѝ dismissed.ѝ

Meanwhile,ѝtheѝU.S.ѝTreasuryѝDepartmentѝhadѝbeenѝdevelopingѝevi- denceѝonѝtaxѝevasionѝchargesѝ—ѝinѝadditionѝtoѝAlѝCapone,ѝhisѝbrotherѝ Ralphѝ«Bottles»ѝCapone,ѝJakeѝ«GreasyѝThumb»ѝGuzik,ѝFrankѝNittiѝandѝ otherѝmobstersѝwereѝsubjectsѝofѝtaxѝevasionѝcharges.ѝ

OnѝJuneѝ16,ѝ1931,ѝAlѝCaponeѝpledѝguiltyѝtoѝtaxѝevasionѝandѝprohibitionѝ charges.ѝHeѝthenѝboastedѝtoѝtheѝpressѝthatѝheѝhadѝstruckѝaѝdealѝforѝaѝ two-and-one-halfѝyearѝsentence,ѝbutѝtheѝpresidingѝjudgeѝinformedѝhimѝ he,ѝtheѝjudge,ѝwasѝnotѝboundѝbyѝanyѝdeal.ѝCaponeѝthenѝchangedѝhisѝpleaѝ toѝnotѝguilty.ѝ

OnѝOctoberѝ18,ѝ1931,ѝCaponeѝwasѝconvictedѝafterѝtrialѝandѝwasѝsentencedѝtoѝelevenѝyearsѝinѝFederalѝprison,ѝfinedѝ$50,000ѝandѝchargedѝ $7,692ѝforѝcourtѝcosts,ѝinѝadditionѝtoѝ$215,000ѝplusѝinterestѝdueѝonѝbackѝ taxes.ѝ Theѝ six-monthѝ Contemptѝ ofѝ Courtѝ sentenceѝ wasѝ toѝ beѝ servedѝ concurrently.ѝ

Whileѝawaitingѝtheѝresultsѝofѝappeals,ѝCaponeѝwasѝconfinedѝtoѝtheѝCookѝ CountyѝJail.ѝUponѝdenialѝofѝappeals,ѝheѝenteredѝtheѝU.S.ѝPenitentiaryѝ atѝAtlanta,ѝservingѝhisѝsentenceѝthereѝandѝatѝAlcatraz.ѝ

Inѝ 1939ѝ AlѝCaponeѝwasѝreleasedѝafterѝ havingѝ servedѝ sevenѝ years,ѝsixѝ monthsѝandѝfifteenѝdays,ѝandѝhavingѝpaidѝallѝfinesѝandѝbackѝtaxes.ѝ

Sufferingѝfromѝparesisѝderivedѝfromѝsyphilis,ѝheѝhadѝdeterioratedѝgreatlyѝ duringѝhisѝconfinement.ѝImmediatelyѝonѝreleaseѝheѝenteredѝaѝBaltimoreѝ hospitalѝforѝbrainѝtreatment,ѝandѝthenѝwentѝonѝtoѝhisѝFloridaѝhome,ѝanѝ estateѝonѝPalmѝIslandѝinѝBiscayneѝBayѝnearѝMiami,ѝwhichѝheѝhadѝpurchasedѝinѝ1928.ѝ

Followingѝhisѝrelease,ѝheѝneverѝpubliclyѝreturnedѝtoѝChicago.ѝHeѝhadѝ becomeѝmentallyѝincapableѝofѝreturningѝtoѝganglandѝpolitics.ѝInѝ1946,ѝ hisѝphysicianѝandѝaѝBaltimoreѝpsychiatrist,ѝafterѝexamination,ѝbothѝcon- cludedѝAlѝCaponeѝthenѝhadѝtheѝmentalityѝofѝaѝ12-year-oldѝchild.ѝCa- poneѝresidedѝonѝPalmѝIslandѝwithѝhisѝwifeѝandѝimmediateѝfamily,ѝinѝaѝ secludedѝatmosphere,ѝuntilѝhisѝdeathѝdueѝtoѝaѝstrokeѝandѝpneumoniaѝonѝ Januaryѝ25,ѝ1947.ѝ

Lesson 20

Famous Cases: John Dillinger

Duringѝtheѝ1930sѝDepression,ѝmanyѝAmericans,ѝnearlyѝhelplessѝagainstѝ forcesѝtheyѝdidn'tѝunderstand,ѝmadeѝheroesѝofѝoutlawsѝwhoѝtookѝwhatѝ theyѝwantedѝatѝgunpoint.ѝOfѝallѝtheѝluridѝdesperadoes,ѝoneѝman,ѝJohnѝ

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HerbertѝDillinger,ѝcameѝtoѝevokeѝthisѝGangsterѝEra,ѝandѝstirredѝmassѝ emotionѝtoѝaѝdegreeѝrarelyѝseenѝinѝthisѝcountry.ѝ

Dillingerѝwasѝaѝnotoriousѝandѝviciousѝthief.ѝFromѝSeptember,ѝ1933,ѝuntilѝJuly,ѝ1934,ѝheѝandѝhisѝviolentѝgangѝterrorizedѝtheѝMidwest,ѝkillingѝ10ѝ men,ѝwoundingѝ7ѝothers,ѝrobbingѝbanksѝandѝpoliceѝarsenals,ѝandѝstagingѝ 3ѝjailѝbreaksѝ—ѝkillingѝaѝsheriffѝduringѝoneѝandѝ

woundingѝ2ѝguardsѝinѝanother.ѝ

JohnѝHerbertѝDillingerѝwasѝbornѝonѝJuneѝ22,ѝ 1903,ѝinѝtheѝOakѝHillѝsectionѝofѝIndianapolis,ѝaѝ middle-classѝresidentialѝneighborhood.ѝHisѝfa- ther,ѝ aѝ hardworkingѝ grocer,ѝ raisedѝ himѝ inѝ anѝ atmosphereѝofѝdisciplinaryѝextremes,ѝharshѝandѝ repressiveѝonѝsomeѝoccasions,ѝbutѝgenerousѝandѝ permissiveѝonѝothers.ѝJohn'sѝmotherѝdiedѝwhenѝ heѝwasѝthree,ѝandѝwhenѝhisѝfatherѝremarriedѝsixѝ yearsѝlater,ѝJohnѝresentedѝhisѝstepmother.ѝ

Finally,ѝheѝquitѝschoolѝandѝgotѝaѝjobѝinѝaѝmachineѝshopѝinѝIndianapolis.ѝAlthoughѝintelligentѝandѝaѝgoodѝworker,ѝheѝ soonѝbecameѝboredѝandѝoftenѝstayedѝoutѝallѝnight.ѝHisѝfather,ѝworriedѝ thatѝtheѝtemptationsѝofѝtheѝcityѝwereѝcorruptingѝhisѝteenagedѝson,ѝsoldѝ hisѝ propertyѝ inѝ Indianapolisѝ andѝ movedѝ hisѝ familyѝ toѝ aѝ farmѝ nearѝ Mooresville,ѝIndiana.ѝHowever,ѝJohnѝreactedѝnoѝbetterѝtoѝruralѝlifeѝthanѝ heѝhadѝtoѝthatѝinѝtheѝcityѝandѝsoonѝbeganѝtoѝrunѝwildѝagain.ѝ

Aѝbreakѝwithѝhisѝfatherѝandѝtroubleѝwithѝtheѝlawѝ(autoѝtheft)ѝledѝhimѝtoѝ enlistѝinѝtheѝNavy.ѝThereѝheѝsoonѝgotѝintoѝtroubleѝandѝdesertedѝhisѝshipѝ whenѝitѝdockedѝinѝBoston.ѝReturningѝtoѝMooresville,ѝheѝmarriedѝ16- year-oldѝBerylѝHoviusѝinѝ1924.ѝAѝdazzlingѝdreamѝofѝbrightѝlightsѝandѝ excitementѝledѝtheѝnewlywedsѝtoѝIndianapolis.ѝDillingerѝhadѝnoѝluckѝ findingѝworkѝinѝtheѝcityѝandѝjoinedѝtheѝtownѝpoolѝshark,ѝEdѝSingleton,ѝ inѝhisѝsearchѝforѝeasyѝmoney.ѝInѝtheirѝfirstѝattempt,ѝtheyѝtriedѝtoѝrobѝaѝ Mooresvilleѝgrocer,ѝbutѝwereѝquicklyѝapprehended.ѝSingletonѝpleadedѝ notѝguilty,ѝstoodѝtrial,ѝandѝwasѝsentencedѝtoѝtwoѝyears.ѝDillinger,ѝfollowingѝhisѝfather'sѝadvice,ѝconfessed,ѝwasѝconvictedѝofѝassaultѝandѝbatteryѝwithѝintentѝtoѝrob,ѝandѝconspiracyѝtoѝcommitѝaѝfelony,ѝandѝreceivedѝ jointѝsentencesѝofѝ2ѝtoѝ14ѝyearsѝandѝ10ѝtoѝ20ѝyearsѝinѝtheѝIndianaѝStateѝ Prison.ѝStunnedѝbyѝtheѝharshѝsentence,ѝDillingerѝbecameѝaѝtortured,ѝ bitterѝmanѝinѝprison.ѝ

HisѝperiodѝofѝinfamyѝbeganѝonѝMayѝ10,ѝ1933,ѝwhenѝheѝwasѝparoledѝ fromѝprisonѝafterѝservingѝ8ѝ1/2ѝyearsѝofѝhisѝsentence.ѝAlmostѝimmediately,ѝDillingerѝrobbedѝaѝbankѝinѝBluffton,ѝOhio.ѝDaytonѝpoliceѝarrestedѝ

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himѝonѝSeptemberѝ22,ѝandѝheѝwasѝlodgedѝinѝtheѝcountyѝjailѝinѝLima,ѝ Ohio,ѝtoѝawaitѝtrial.ѝ

ѝ

The many faces of John Dillinger

InѝfriskingѝDillinger,ѝtheѝLimaѝpoliceѝfoundѝaѝdocumentѝwhichѝseemedѝ toѝbeѝaѝplanѝforѝaѝprisonѝbreak,ѝbutѝtheѝprisonerѝdeniedѝknowledgeѝofѝ anyѝ plan.ѝ Fourѝ daysѝ later,ѝ usingѝ theѝ sameѝ plans,ѝ eightѝ ofѝ Dillinger'sѝ friendsѝescapedѝfromѝtheѝIndianaѝStateѝPrison,ѝusingѝshotgunsѝandѝriflesѝ whichѝhadѝbeenѝsmuggledѝintoѝtheirѝcells.ѝDuringѝtheirѝescape,ѝtheyѝshotѝ twoѝguards.ѝ

OnѝOctoberѝ12,ѝthreeѝofѝtheѝescapedѝprisonersѝandѝaѝparoleeѝfromѝtheѝ sameѝprisonѝshowedѝupѝatѝtheѝLimaѝjailѝwhereѝDillingerѝwasѝincarcerated.ѝTheyѝtoldѝtheѝsheriffѝthatѝtheyѝhadѝcomeѝtoѝreturnѝDillingerѝtoѝtheѝ IndianaѝStateѝPrisonѝforѝviolationѝofѝhisѝparole.ѝ

Whenѝtheѝsheriffѝaskedѝtoѝseeѝtheirѝcredentials,ѝoneѝofѝtheѝmenѝpulledѝaѝ gun,ѝshotѝtheѝsheriffѝandѝbeatѝhimѝintoѝunconsciousness.ѝThenѝtakingѝ theѝkeysѝtoѝtheѝjail,ѝtheѝbanditsѝfreedѝDillinger,ѝlockedѝtheѝsheriff'sѝwifeѝ andѝaѝdeputyѝinѝaѝcell,ѝandѝleavingѝtheѝsheriffѝtoѝdieѝonѝtheѝfloor,ѝmadeѝ theirѝgetaway.ѝ

AlthoughѝnoneѝofѝtheseѝmenѝhadѝviolatedѝaѝFederalѝlaw,ѝtheѝFBI'sѝassistanceѝwasѝrequestedѝinѝidentifyingѝandѝlocatingѝtheѝcriminals.ѝTheѝfourѝ menѝwereѝidentifiedѝasѝHarryѝPierpont,ѝRussellѝClark,ѝCharlesѝMakley,ѝ

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andѝHarryѝCopeland.ѝTheirѝfingerprintѝcardsѝinѝtheѝFBIѝIdentificationѝ Divisionѝ wereѝ flaggedѝ withѝ redѝ metalѝ tags,ѝ indicatingѝ thatѝ theyѝ wereѝ wanted.ѝ

Meanwhile,ѝDillingerѝandѝhisѝgangѝpulledѝseveralѝbankѝrobberies.ѝTheyѝ alsoѝplunderedѝtheѝpoliceѝarsenalsѝatѝAuburn,ѝIndiana,ѝandѝPeru,ѝIndiana,ѝstealingѝseveralѝmachineѝguns,ѝrifles,ѝandѝrevolvers,ѝaѝquantityѝofѝ ammunition,ѝ andѝ severalѝ bulletproofѝ vests.ѝ Onѝ Decemberѝ 14,ѝ Johnѝ Hamilton,ѝaѝDillingerѝgangѝmember,ѝshotѝandѝkilledѝaѝpoliceѝdetectiveѝ inѝChicago.ѝAѝmonthѝlater,ѝtheѝDillingerѝgangѝkilledѝaѝpoliceѝofficerѝ duringѝtheѝrobberyѝofѝtheѝFirstѝNationalѝBankѝofѝEastѝChicago,ѝIndiana.ѝ Thenѝ theyѝ madeѝ theirѝ wayѝ toѝ Floridaѝ and,ѝ subsequently,ѝ toѝ Tucson,ѝ Arizona.ѝThereѝonѝJanuaryѝ23,ѝ1934,ѝaѝfireѝbrokeѝoutѝinѝtheѝhotelѝwhereѝ ClarkѝandѝMakleyѝwereѝhidingѝunderѝassumedѝnames.ѝFiremenѝrecognizedѝtheѝmenѝfromѝtheirѝphotographs,ѝandѝlocalѝpoliceѝarrestedѝthem,ѝ asѝwellѝasѝDillingerѝandѝHarryѝPierpont.ѝTheyѝalsoѝseizedѝ3ѝThompsonѝ submachineѝguns,ѝ2ѝWinchesterѝriflesѝmountedѝasѝmachineѝguns,ѝ5ѝbulletproofѝvests,ѝandѝmoreѝthanѝ$25,000ѝinѝcash,ѝpartѝofѝitѝfromѝtheѝEastѝ Chicagoѝrobbery.ѝ

DillingerѝwasѝsequesteredѝatѝtheѝcountyѝjailѝinѝCrownѝPoint,ѝIndiana,ѝtoѝ awaitѝtrialѝforѝtheѝmurderѝofѝtheѝEastѝChicagoѝpoliceѝofficer.ѝAuthoritiesѝ boastedѝthatѝtheѝjailѝwasѝ«escapeѝproof.»ѝButѝonѝMarchѝ3,ѝ1934,ѝDillingerѝcowedѝtheѝguardsѝwithѝwhatѝheѝclaimedѝlaterѝwasѝaѝwoodenѝgunѝheѝ hadѝwhittled.ѝHeѝforcedѝthemѝtoѝopenѝtheѝdoorѝtoѝhisѝcell,ѝthenѝgrabbedѝ twoѝmachineѝguns,ѝlockedѝupѝtheѝguardsѝandѝseveralѝtrustees,ѝandѝfled.ѝ

ItѝwasѝthenѝthatѝDillingerѝmadeѝtheѝmistakeѝthatѝwouldѝcostѝhimѝhisѝlife.ѝ Heѝ stoleѝ theѝ sheriff'sѝ carѝ andѝ droveѝ acrossѝ theѝ Indiana-Illinoisѝ line,ѝ headingѝforѝChicago.ѝByѝdoingѝthat,ѝheѝviolatedѝtheѝNationalѝMotorѝ VehicleѝTheftѝAct,ѝwhichѝmadeѝitѝaѝFederalѝoffenseѝtoѝtransportѝaѝstolenѝ motorѝvehicleѝacrossѝaѝstateѝline.ѝ

AѝFederalѝcomplaintѝwasѝswornѝchargingѝDillingerѝwithѝtheѝtheftѝandѝ interstateѝ transportationѝ ofѝ theѝ sheriff'sѝ car,ѝ whichѝ wasѝ recoveredѝ inѝ Chicago.ѝAfterѝtheѝgrandѝjuryѝreturnedѝanѝindictment,ѝtheѝFBIѝbecameѝ activelyѝinvolvedѝinѝtheѝnationwideѝsearchѝforѝDillinger.ѝ

Meanwhile,ѝPierpont,ѝMakley,ѝandѝClarkѝwereѝreturnedѝtoѝOhioѝandѝ convictedѝofѝtheѝmurderѝofѝtheѝLimaѝsheriff.ѝPierpontѝandѝMakleyѝwereѝ sentencedѝtoѝdeath,ѝandѝClarkѝtoѝlifeѝimprisonment.ѝButѝinѝanѝescapeѝ attempt,ѝMakleyѝwasѝkilledѝandѝPierpontѝwasѝwounded.ѝAѝmonthѝlater,ѝ Pierpontѝhadѝrecoveredѝsufficientlyѝtoѝbeѝexecuted.ѝ

InѝChicago,ѝDillingerѝjoinedѝhisѝgirlfriend,ѝEvelynѝFrechette.ѝTheyѝproceededѝtoѝSt.ѝPaul,ѝwhereѝDillingerѝteamedѝupѝwithѝHomerѝVanѝMeter,ѝ

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Lesterѝ(«BabyѝFaceѝNelson»)ѝGillis,ѝEddieѝGreen,ѝandѝTommyѝCarroll,ѝ amongѝothers.ѝTheѝgang'sѝbusinessѝprosperedѝasѝtheyѝcontinuedѝrobbingѝ banksѝofѝlargeѝamountsѝofѝmoney.ѝ

ThenѝonѝMarchѝ30,ѝ1934,ѝanѝAgentѝtalkedѝtoѝtheѝmanagerѝofѝtheѝLincolnѝCourtѝApartmentsѝinѝSt.ѝPaul,ѝwhoѝreportedѝtwoѝsuspiciousѝtenants,ѝMr.ѝandѝMrs.ѝHellman,ѝwhoѝactedѝnervousѝandѝrefusedѝtoѝadmitѝ theѝapartmentѝcaretaker.ѝTheѝFBIѝbeganѝaѝsurveillanceѝofѝtheѝHellman'sѝ apartment.ѝTheѝnextѝday,ѝanѝAgentѝandѝaѝpoliceѝofficerѝknockedѝonѝtheѝ doorѝofѝtheѝapartment.ѝEvelynѝFrechetteѝopenedѝtheѝdoor,ѝbutѝquicklyѝ slammedѝitѝshut.ѝTheѝAgentѝcalledѝforѝreinforcementsѝtoѝsurroundѝtheѝ building.ѝ

Whileѝwaiting,ѝtheѝAgentsѝsawѝaѝmanѝenterѝaѝhallѝnearѝtheѝHellman'sѝ apartment.ѝWhenѝquestioned,ѝtheѝman,ѝHomerѝVanѝMeter,ѝdrewѝaѝgun.ѝ Shotsѝwereѝexchanged,ѝduringѝwhichѝVanѝMeterѝfledѝtheѝbuildingѝandѝ forcedѝaѝtruckѝdriverѝatѝgunpointѝtoѝdriveѝhimѝtoѝGreen'sѝapartment.ѝ SuddenlyѝtheѝdoorѝofѝtheѝHellmanѝapartmentѝopenedѝandѝtheѝmuzzleѝofѝ aѝmachineѝgunѝbeganѝsprayingѝtheѝhallwayѝwithѝlead.ѝUnderѝcoverѝofѝtheѝ machineѝgunѝfire,ѝDillingerѝandѝEvelynѝFrechetteѝfledѝthroughѝaѝbackѝ door.ѝ They,ѝ too,ѝ droveѝ toѝ Green'sѝ apartment,ѝ whereѝ Dillingerѝ wasѝ treatedѝforѝaѝbulletѝwoundѝreceivedѝinѝtheѝescape.ѝ

AtѝtheѝLincolnѝCourtѝApartments,ѝtheѝFBIѝfoundѝaѝThompsonѝsubmachineѝgunѝwithѝtheѝstockѝremoved,ѝtwoѝautomaticѝrifles,ѝone.38ѝcaliberѝ Coltѝautomaticѝwithѝtwenty-shotѝmagazineѝclips,ѝandѝtwoѝbulletproofѝ vests.ѝAcrossѝtown,ѝotherѝAgentsѝlocatedѝoneѝofѝEddieѝGreen'sѝhideoutsѝ whereѝ heѝ andѝ Bessieѝ Skinnerѝ hadѝ beenѝ livingѝ asѝ «Mr.ѝ andѝ Mrs.ѝ Stephens.»ѝOnѝAprilѝ3,ѝwhenѝGreenѝwasѝlocated,ѝheѝattemptedѝtoѝdrawѝ hisѝgun,ѝbutѝwasѝshotѝbyѝtheѝAgents.ѝHeѝdiedѝinѝaѝhospitalѝeightѝdaysѝ later.ѝ

DillingerѝandѝEvelynѝFrechetteѝfledѝtoѝMooresville,ѝIndiana,ѝwhereѝtheyѝ stayedѝwithѝhisѝfatherѝandѝhalf-brotherѝuntilѝhisѝwoundѝhealed.ѝThenѝ FrechetteѝwentѝtoѝChicagoѝtoѝvisitѝaѝfriend—andѝwasѝarrestedѝbyѝtheѝ FBI.ѝSheѝwasѝtakenѝtoѝSt.ѝPaulѝforѝtrialѝonѝaѝchargeѝofѝconspiracyѝtoѝ harborѝaѝfugitive.ѝSheѝwasѝconvicted,ѝfinedѝ$1,000,ѝandѝsentencedѝtoѝ twoѝyearsѝinѝprison.ѝBessieѝSkinner,ѝEddieѝGreen'sѝgirlfriend,ѝgotѝ15ѝ monthsѝonѝtheѝsameѝcharge.ѝ

Meanwhile,ѝDillingerѝandѝVanѝMeterѝrobbedѝaѝpoliceѝstationѝatѝWarsaw,ѝIndiana,ѝofѝgunsѝandѝbulletproofѝvests.ѝDillingerѝstayedѝforѝawhileѝ inѝUpperѝMichigan,ѝdepartingѝjustѝaheadѝofѝaѝposseѝofѝFBIѝAgentsѝdispatchedѝthereѝbyѝairplane.ѝThenѝtheѝFBIѝreceivedѝaѝtipѝthatѝthereѝhadѝ beenѝaѝsuddenѝinfluxѝofѝratherѝsuspiciousѝguestsѝatѝtheѝsummerѝresortѝofѝ LittleѝBohemiaѝLodge,ѝaboutѝ50ѝmilesѝnorthѝofѝRhinelander,ѝWisconsin.ѝ

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OneѝofѝthemѝsoundedѝlikeѝJohnѝDillingerѝandѝanotherѝlikeѝ«BabyѝFaceѝ Nelson.»ѝ

FromѝRhinelander,ѝanѝFBIѝtaskѝforceѝsetѝoutѝbyѝcarѝforѝLittleѝBohemia.ѝ Twoѝofѝtheѝrentedѝcarsѝbrokeѝdownѝenroute,ѝand,ѝinѝtheѝuncommonlyѝ coldѝAprilѝweather,ѝsomeѝofѝtheѝAgentsѝhadѝtoѝmakeѝtheѝtripѝstandingѝonѝ theѝrunningѝboardsѝofѝtheѝotherѝ

cars.ѝTwoѝmilesѝfromѝtheѝresort,ѝ theѝcarѝlightsѝwereѝturnedѝoffѝandѝ theѝposseѝproceededѝthroughѝtheѝ darkness.ѝWhenѝtheѝcarsѝreachedѝ theѝ resort,ѝ dogsѝ beganѝ barking.ѝ Theѝ Agentsѝ spreadѝ outѝ toѝ surroundѝtheѝlodgeѝandѝasѝtheyѝapproached,ѝmachineѝgunѝfireѝrattledѝ downѝ onѝ themѝ fromѝ theѝ roof.ѝ Swiftly,ѝ theѝ Agentsѝ tookѝ cover.ѝOneѝofѝthemѝhurriedѝtoѝaѝ telephoneѝ toѝ giveѝ directionsѝ toѝ additionalѝ Agentsѝ whoѝ hadѝ arrivedѝinѝRhinelanderѝtoѝbackѝupѝ theѝoperation.ѝ

Whileѝ theѝ Agentѝ wasѝ telephoning,ѝtheѝoperatorѝbrokeѝinѝtoѝtellѝ himѝthereѝwasѝtroubleѝatѝanotherѝ cottageѝ aboutѝ twoѝ milesѝ away.ѝ

SpecialѝAgentѝW.ѝCarterѝBaum,ѝanotherѝFBIѝman,ѝandѝaѝconstableѝwentѝ thereѝandѝfoundѝaѝparkedѝcarѝwhichѝtheѝconstableѝrecognizedѝasѝbelongingѝtoѝaѝlocalѝresident.ѝTheyѝpulledѝupѝandѝidentifiedѝthemselves.ѝ

Insideѝtheѝotherѝcar,ѝ«BabyѝFaceѝNelson»ѝwasѝholdingѝthreeѝlocalѝresidentsѝatѝgunpoint.ѝHeѝturned,ѝleveledѝaѝrevolverѝatѝtheѝlawmen'sѝcar,ѝ andѝorderedѝthemѝtoѝstepѝout.ѝButѝwithoutѝwaitingѝforѝthemѝtoѝcomply,ѝ Nelsonѝopenedѝfire.ѝBaumѝwasѝkilled,ѝandѝtheѝconstableѝandѝtheѝotherѝ Agentѝwereѝseverelyѝwounded.ѝNelsonѝjumpedѝintoѝtheѝFordѝtheyѝhadѝ beenѝusingѝandѝfled.ѝ

WhenѝtheѝfiringѝhadѝsubsidedѝatѝtheѝLittleѝBohemiaѝLodge,ѝDillingerѝ wasѝgone.ѝWhenѝtheѝAgentsѝenteredѝtheѝlodgeѝtheѝnextѝmorning,ѝtheyѝ foundѝonlyѝthreeѝfrightenedѝfemales.ѝDillingerѝandѝfiveѝothersѝhadѝfledѝ throughѝaѝbackѝwindowѝbeforeѝtheѝAgentsѝsurroundedѝtheѝhouse.ѝ

InѝWashington,ѝFBIѝDirectorѝJ.ѝEdgarѝHooverѝassignedѝSpecialѝAgentѝ SamuelѝA.ѝCowleyѝtoѝheadѝtheѝFBI'sѝinvestigativeѝeffortsѝagainstѝDillinger.ѝCowleyѝsetѝupѝheadquartersѝinѝChicago,ѝwhereѝheѝandѝMelvinѝPur-

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vis,ѝSpecialѝAgentѝinѝChargeѝofѝtheѝChicagoѝoffice,ѝplannedѝtheirѝstrategy.ѝAѝsquadѝofѝAgentsѝunderѝCowleyѝworkedѝwithѝEastѝChicagoѝpolicemenѝinѝtrackingѝdownѝallѝtipsѝandѝrumors.ѝ

Lateѝ inѝ theѝ afternoonѝ ofѝ Saturday,ѝ Julyѝ 21,ѝ 1934,ѝ theѝ madamѝ ofѝ aѝ brothelѝinѝGary,ѝIndiana,ѝcontactedѝoneѝofѝtheѝpoliceѝofficersѝwithѝinformation.ѝ Thisѝ womanѝ calledѝ herselfѝ Annaѝ Sage,ѝ however,ѝ herѝ realѝ nameѝwasѝAnaѝCumpanas,ѝandѝsheѝhadѝenteredѝtheѝUnitedѝStatesѝfromѝ herѝnativeѝRumaniaѝinѝ1914.ѝBecauseѝofѝtheѝnatureѝofѝherѝprofession,ѝ sheѝwasѝconsideredѝanѝundesirableѝalienѝbyѝtheѝImmigrationѝandѝNaturalizationѝService,ѝandѝdeportationѝproceedingsѝhadѝbeenѝstarted.ѝAnnaѝ wasѝwillingѝtoѝsellѝtheѝFBIѝsomeѝinformationѝaboutѝDillingerѝforѝaѝcashѝ reward,ѝplusѝtheѝFBI'sѝhelpѝinѝpreventingѝherѝdeportation.ѝ

AtѝaѝmeetingѝwithѝAnna,ѝCowleyѝandѝPurvisѝwereѝcautious.ѝTheyѝpromisedѝherѝtheѝrewardѝifѝherѝinformationѝledѝtoѝDillinger'sѝcapture,ѝbutѝsaidѝ allѝtheyѝcouldѝdoѝwasѝcallѝherѝcooperationѝtoѝtheѝattentionѝofѝtheѝDepartmentѝ ofѝ Labor,ѝ whichѝ atѝ thatѝ timeѝ handledѝ deportationѝ matters.ѝ Satisfied,ѝAnnaѝtoldѝtheѝAgentsѝthatѝaѝgirlfriendѝofѝhers,ѝPollyѝHamilton,ѝ hadѝ visitedѝ herѝ establishmentѝ withѝ Dillinger.ѝ Annaѝ hadѝ recognizedѝ Dillingerѝfromѝaѝnewspaperѝphotograph.ѝ

AnnaѝtoldѝtheѝAgentsѝthatѝshe,ѝPollyѝHamilton,ѝandѝDillingerѝprobablyѝ wouldѝbeѝgoingѝtoѝtheѝmoviesѝtheѝfollowingѝeveningѝatѝeitherѝtheѝBiographѝorѝtheѝMarbroѝTheaters.ѝSheѝsaidѝthatѝsheѝwouldѝnotifyѝthemѝ whenѝtheѝtheaterѝwasѝchosen.ѝSheѝalsoѝsaidѝthatѝsheѝwouldѝwearѝaѝredѝ dressѝsoѝthatѝtheyѝcouldѝidentifyѝher.ѝ

OnѝSunday,ѝJulyѝ22,ѝCowleyѝorderedѝallѝAgentsѝofѝtheѝChicagoѝofficeѝtoѝ standѝbyѝforѝurgentѝduty.ѝAnnaѝSageѝcalledѝthatѝeveningѝtoѝconfirmѝtheѝ plans,ѝ butѝ sheѝ stillѝ didѝ notѝ knowѝ whichѝ theaterѝ theyѝ wouldѝ attend.ѝ Therefore,ѝ Agentsѝ andѝ policemenѝ wereѝ sentѝ toѝ bothѝ theaters.ѝ Atѝ 8:30ѝp.m.,ѝAnnaѝSage,ѝJohnѝDillinger,ѝandѝPollyѝHamiltonѝstrolledѝintoѝ theѝBiographѝTheaterѝtoѝseeѝClarkѝGableѝinѝ«ManhattanѝMelodrama.»ѝ PurvisѝphonedѝCowley,ѝwhoѝshiftedѝtheѝotherѝmenѝfromѝtheѝMarbroѝtoѝ theѝBiograph.ѝ

CowleyѝalsoѝphonedѝHooverѝforѝinstructions.ѝHooverѝcautionedѝthemѝtoѝ waitѝoutsideѝratherѝthanѝriskѝaѝshootingѝmatchѝinsideѝtheѝcrowdedѝtheater.ѝEachѝmanѝwasѝinstructedѝnotѝtoѝunnecessarilyѝendangerѝhimselfѝandѝ wasѝtoldѝthatѝifѝDillingerѝofferedѝanyѝresistance,ѝitѝwouldѝbeѝeachѝmanѝ forѝhimself.ѝ

Atѝ 10:30ѝp.m.,ѝ Dillinger,ѝ withѝ hisѝ twoѝ femaleѝ companionsѝ onѝ eitherѝ side,ѝwalkedѝoutѝofѝtheѝtheaterѝandѝturnedѝtoѝhisѝleft.ѝAsѝtheyѝwalkedѝ pastѝtheѝdoorwayѝinѝwhichѝPurvisѝwasѝstanding,ѝPurvisѝlitѝaѝcigarѝasѝaѝ

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signalѝforѝtheѝotherѝmenѝtoѝcloseѝin.ѝDillingerѝquicklyѝrealizedѝwhatѝwasѝ happeningѝ andѝ actedѝ byѝ instinct.ѝ Heѝ grabbedѝ aѝ pistolѝ fromѝ hisѝ rightѝ trouserѝpocketѝasѝheѝranѝtowardѝtheѝalley.ѝFiveѝshotsѝwereѝfiredѝfromѝtheѝ gunsѝofѝthreeѝFBIѝAgents.ѝThreeѝofѝtheѝshotsѝhitѝDillingerѝandѝheѝfellѝ faceѝ downѝ onѝ theѝ pavement.ѝ Atѝ 10:50ѝp.m.ѝ onѝ Julyѝ 22,ѝ 1934,ѝ Johnѝ DillingerѝwasѝpronouncedѝdeadѝinѝaѝlittleѝroomѝinѝtheѝAlexianѝBrothersѝ Hospital.ѝ

Theѝ Agentsѝ whoѝ firedѝ atѝ Dillingerѝ wereѝ CharlesѝB.ѝWinstead,ѝ ClarenceѝO.ѝHurt,ѝandѝHermanѝE.ѝHollis.ѝEachѝmanѝwasѝcommendedѝbyѝ J.ѝEdgarѝHooverѝforѝfearlessnessѝandѝcourageousѝaction.ѝNoneѝofѝthemѝ everѝsaidѝwhoѝactuallyѝkilledѝDillinger.ѝTheѝeventsѝofѝthatѝsultryѝJulyѝ nightѝinѝChicagoѝmarkedѝtheѝbeginningѝofѝtheѝendѝofѝtheѝGangsterѝEra.ѝ Eventually,ѝ27ѝpersonsѝwereѝconvictedѝinѝFederalѝcourtsѝonѝchargesѝofѝ harboring,ѝandѝaidingѝandѝabettingѝJohnѝDillingerѝandѝhisѝcroniesѝduringѝtheirѝreignѝofѝterror.ѝ«BabyѝFaceѝNelson»ѝwasѝfatallyѝwoundedѝonѝ Novemberѝ27,ѝ1934,ѝinѝaѝgunѝbattleѝwithѝFBIѝAgentsѝinѝwhichѝSpecialѝ Agentsѝ Cowleyѝ andѝ Hollisѝ alsoѝ wereѝ killed.ѝ Dillingerѝ wasѝ buriedѝ inѝ CrownѝHillѝCemeteryѝinѝIndianapolis,ѝIndiana.ѝ

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