Phonology
Main article: Old English phonology
The inventory of classical Old English (i.e. Late West Saxon) surface phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows.
|
Bilabial |
Labiodental |
Dental |
Alveolar |
Postalveolar |
Palatal |
Velar |
Glottal |
Plosive |
p b |
|
|
t d |
|
|
k ɡ |
|
Affricate |
|
|
|
|
tʃ (dʒ) |
|
|
|
Nasal |
m |
|
|
n |
|
|
(ŋ) |
|
Fricative |
|
f (v) |
θ (ð) |
s (z) |
ʃ |
(ç) |
(x) (ɣ) |
h |
Approximant |
|
|
|
r |
|
j |
w |
|
Lateral approximant |
|
|
|
l |
|
|
|
|
The sounds marked in parentheses in the chart above are allophones:
[dʒ] is an allophone of /j/ occurring after /n/ and when geminated
[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ occurring before /k/ and /ɡ/
[v, ð, z] are allophones of /f, θ, s/ respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants
[ç, x] are allophones of /h/ occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively
[ɣ] is an allophone of /ɡ/ occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset.
Monophthongs |
Short |
Long |
||
Front |
Back |
Front |
Back |
|
Close |
i y |
u |
iː yː |
uː |
Mid |
e (ø) |
o |
eː (øː) |
oː |
Open |
æ |
ɑ |
æː |
ɑː |
The front mid rounded vowels /ø(ː)/ occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West Saxon dialect.
Diphthongs |
Short (monomoraic) |
Long (bimoraic) |
First element is close |
iy[10] |
iːy |
Both elements are mid |
eo |
eːo |
Both elements are open |
æɑ |
æːɑ |
Sound changes
Main article: Old English phonology#Phonological processes
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some basic vocabulary items, leading from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Modern English. The notation >! indicates an unexpected change (the simple notation ">" indicates an expected change). The notation "---" means no change at the given stage for the given item. Only sound changes that had an effect on one or more of the vocabulary items are shown.
|
one |
two |
three |
four |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
heart |
hear |
Proto-Indo-European |
óinos |
dúoH |
trih₂ (fem.) |
kʷetwó:res |
pénkʷe |
seḱs |
septḿ |
méh₂te:r |
ḱe:rd |
h₂ḱousyónom |
PIE pronunciation |
óinos |
dúoh? |
triχ |
kʷetwó:res |
pénkʷe |
seks |
septḿ |
máχte:r |
ke:rd |
χkousjónom |
Laryngeal changes |
--- |
dúo: |
tría |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
má:te:r |
--- |
kousjónom |
Osthoff's Law |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
kerd |
--- |
Sievers' Law |
--- |
--- |
tríja |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
kousijónom |
Pre-Germanic unexpected changes |
--- |
>! dwoi |
>! tríja: |
>! petwó:res |
>! pémpe |
--- |
>! sepḿt |
--- |
>! kérd-o:n |
--- |
Vocalic resonant |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sepúmt |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Final -m > -n |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sepúnt |
--- |
--- |
kousijónon |
Grimm's Law |
--- |
twoi |
θríja: |
feθwó:res |
fémfe |
sehs |
sefúnt |
má:θe:r |
hérto:n |
housijónon |
Verner's Law |
oinoz |
--- |
θrija: |
feðwo:rez |
femfe |
--- |
sevunt |
ma:θe:r |
herto:n |
houzijonon |
a ō > o ā |
ainaz |
twai |
θrijo: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:θe:r |
--- |
hauzijanan |
Nasal raising |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fimfe |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Proto-Germanic final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feðwo:rz |
fimf |
--- |
sevun |
--- |
hertõ: |
hauzijanã |
Proto-Germanic form |
ainaz |
twai |
θrijo: |
feðwo:rz |
fimf |
sehs |
sevun |
mo:θe:r |
hertõ: |
hauzijanã |
West Germanic (WG) final reduction |
ainz |
--- |
θriu |
feðwurz |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:θer |
hertã > herta |
hauzijan |
WG final -z loss |
ain |
--- |
--- |
feðwur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
WG z > r |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
haurijan |
WG ðw > ww |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fewwur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Ingvaeonic nasal loss |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fi:f |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
ai > ā |
a:n |
twa: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Anglo-Frisian brightening |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hertæ |
hæurijan |
Old English (OE) i-mutation |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
heyrijan |
OE loss of i-mutation trigger |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
heyran |
OE intervocalic voicing |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mo:ðer |
--- |
--- |
OE breaking |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hĕŭrtæ |
--- |
OE diphthong height harmony |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feowur |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hĕŏrtæ |
he:ran |
OE back mutation |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sĕŏvun |
--- |
--- |
--- |
OE final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
feowor |
--- |
--- |
sĕŏvon |
>! mo:ðor |
hĕŏrte |
--- |
OE ehs eht > ihs iht |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sihs |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
OE hs > ks |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
siks |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late OE iu > eo |
--- |
--- |
θreo |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late Old English spelling |
ān |
twā |
þrēo |
fēowor |
fīf |
six |
seofon |
mōþor |
heorte |
hēran |
Middle English (ME) smoothing |
--- |
--- |
θrø: |
fø:wor |
--- |
--- |
søvon |
--- |
hørte |
--- |
ME final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fø:wǝr |
--- |
--- |
søvǝn |
mo:ðǝr |
hørtǝ |
he:rǝn |
ME a: æ: > ɔ: ɛ: |
ɔ:n |
twɔ: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
ME unexpected (?) vowel changes |
--- |
>! two: |
--- |
--- |
>! fi:v-ǝ |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>! hɛ:rǝn |
ME diphthong changes |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>! fowǝr |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
Late ME unrounding |
--- |
--- |
θre: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
sevǝn |
--- |
hertǝ |
--- |
Late Middle English spelling |
oon |
two |
three |
fower |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
herte |
heere(n) |
Late ME final reduction |
--- |
--- |
--- |
>! fowr |
fi:v |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hert |
hɛ:r |
Late ME Great Vowel Shift |
o:n >! wʊn |
twu: > tu: |
θri: |
--- |
fǝiv |
--- |
--- |
mu:ðǝr |
--- |
he:r |
Early Modern English (ENE) smoothing |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fo:r |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
ENE shortening |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʊðǝr |
--- |
--- |
ENE /ʊ/ > /ʌ/ |
wʌn |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʌðǝr |
--- |
--- |
ENE /er/ > /ar/ |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
hart |
--- |
Later vowel shifts |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fɔ:r |
faiv |
sɪks |
--- |
--- |
hɑrt |
hi:r |
Loss of -r (British only) |
--- |
--- |
--- |
fɔ: |
--- |
--- |
--- |
mʌðǝ |
hɑ:t |
hiǝ |
Modern pronunciation |
wʌn |
tu: |
θri: |
fɔ:(r) |
faiv |
sɪks |
sevǝn |
mʌðǝ(r) |
hɑrt/hɑ:t |
hi:r/hiǝ |
|
one |
two |
three |
four |
five |
six |
seven |
mother |
heart |
hear |
NOTE: Some of the changes listed above as "unexpected" are more predictable than others. For example:
tríja "three" > tríja: and ke:rd "heart" > kérd-o:n are morphological changes that move a word from a rare declension to a more common one, and hence are not so surprising.
On the other extreme, the Early Modern English change of o:n "one" >! wʊn is almost completely mysterious. Note that the related words alone (< all + one) and only (< one + -ly) did not change.