4. Motivation

Three types of motivation: 1.phonetical, 2.morphological, 3.semantic.

Phonetical: hiss, bang, buzz, cuckoo, purr, whistle.

Morphological: rethink. Eyewash as “a lotion for the eyes” is motivated morphologically (air-taxi, pressure-cabin). Eyewash – “something said or done to deceive a person so that he thinks what he sees is good, though in fact it is not”, the motivation is semantic.

Semantic motivation: foot- a lower part of smth; part of a body; the foot of the mountain.

earn: OE earninan “to harvest”.

Sound symbolism: flip, flap, flop, flicker, flash, flush; glare, glitter, glow, glimmer; sleet, slush.

5. Semantic changes

1. The causes of semantic changes.

2. Specialization. Generalization

3. Metaphor

4. Metonymy

5. Secondary ways of semantic changes

Causes: extra-linguistic and linguistic. Eextra-linguistic causes. 1) historical: «pen» comes back to the Latin word «penna» (a feather of a bird); “car” (Latin “carfus”); OE eorþe (“the ground under people’s feet”, “the soil”, “the world of man”) – “the third planet from the sun”. 2) psychological causes: “lady’s room” instead of the “lavatory”. Linguistic: tide. (French words «time», «season», «hour». Ellipsis: a train of carriages – «a row of carriages».

German scientist Herman Paul in his work «Prinzipien des prachgeschichte»: gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litote).

Chief consequences of semantic change: the area of meaning can be restricted or expended.

1. Restriction of meaning – specialization:

1) «case» is specialized in the context: law (a law suit), in grammar, in medicine (a patient, an illness). One of Charles’s cases had been a child ill with a form of diphtheria. (Snow) The Solicitor whom I met at the Holfords’ sent me a case which any young man at my stage would have thought himself lucky to get. (Snow) At last we tiptoed up the broad slippery staircase, and went to our rooms. But in my case not to sleep. (Snow)

Play, cell

2) OE mete “food > ModE meat “edible flesh”. Starve – die; deer (all wild animals) – now only deer; “pond” (Latin “pontus”), - pond “пруд”.

3) token (“sign”): a love token, a token of respect, token payment.

4) the City - the business part of London, Oxford - university town in England, the Tower.

5) Ellipsis. Room (space): «no room for», «to take room», «to take no room». The meaning of the word «room» was specialized: «dining room», «sleeping room» which meant «space for dining», «space for sleeping».

6) artist – painter

2. Expansion of meaning – generalization

Generalization. «ready» (meant «prepared for a ride») – «prepared for anything»; «Journey» (Fr.: «one day trip») – «a trip of any duration».

Auxiliary verbs: «have», «be», «do», «shall», «will». «I have several books by this writer» and «I have read some books by this author».

Metaphor: the leaf of a book.

a) head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);

b) an eye of a needle – anthropomorphic metaphor.

c) long distance :: long speech; a short path :: short time

d) a whip

e) span (OE spann) – maximum distance between the tips of thumb and little finger used as a measure of length – a short distance.

f) orange, hazel, chestnut.

g) philistine – a mercenary person, vandals - destructive people, a Don Juan - a lover of many women.

Metonymy: He drinks 2 cups (tea, coffee) every morning. He has eaten 2 plates (porridge) today.

a) a glass, iron

b) The chair, town, the House - members of Parliament, the White House - the Administration of the USA.

c) youth, forces, authorities.

d) to frown

e) the crown, hand

f) the pars pro toto: royal horse (cavalry), foot (infantry); the reverse process: OE cēol “a ship” develops into keel.

g) the violin, the saxophone;

h) sandwich (Lord Sandwich).

i) watt , om, rentgen

j) holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrachan (a sheep fur).

k) functional change: «pen» comes back to the Latin word «penna» (a feather of a bird).

Different interpretations: foot of the mountain – 1) metonymy; 2) anthropomorphic metaphor. The leg of a bed, hand of a clock – 1) metonymy; 2) anthropomorphic metaphor.

Secondary ways of semantic changes.

1. Elevation (amelioration): steward/stewardess from stigo “a sty” and weard “a ward”, “stigweard” had to take care of pigs; «marshal» (horse man).

2. Degradation (pejoration): «villain» («working on a villa») – «a scoundrel».

3. Hyperbole: It’s absolutely maddening; I hate troubling you; A thousand pardons. «to make a mountain out of a molehill», «to split hairs»

4. Litote: “not bad” for “good”; “not small” for “great”; “no coward” for “brave”.

5. Irony: You’ve got us into a nice mess!

6. Euphemism: queer (mad), perspire (sweat).