Unit 9.

Ex. 107. Look through the text.

Causation

For crimes which require a consequence, it must be shown that conduct of the accused caused the consequence to occur. There are two stages to establishing causation - factual and legal causation - and both must be present for a conviction.

The factual causation test asks whether the conduct of the accused was, in fact, a cause of the required consequence. To establish this, it is helpful to use the "but for" test: but for the conduct of the accused, would the consequence have occurred. If the answer is no, then the conduct cannot be said to be a factual cause of the consequence; if the answer is yes, it can.

Clearly there can be more than one factual cause. If, for example, I ask someone to cross a road to fetch my frisbee, and in doing so that person is hit by a careless driver, then I am a cause of the accident. If I had not asked the person to cross the road, the accident would not have happened. The careless driving is also a cause. If the driver had not been driving carelessly, the accident would not have happened.

The legal causation test asks whether there has been a "break in the chain of causation"...has anything intervened between the conduct of the accused and the consequence which, in law, makes the accused be considered not to have caused the consequence? For example, what if, following the accident described above, the injured person is taken to hospital and given grossly inadequate treatment resulting in death? Is the person who wanted his frisbee back still a cause of the death? Clearly, he is still a factual cause of the death. But he may not be a legal cause of death - the subsequent events may have been enough to break the chain of causation. As a general principle, an event will not break the chain of causation if it was reasonably foreseeable that it would occur.

Liability for Omissions

Generally, the law of England imposes no criminal liability for omissions - there is no general duty to act. If, for example, a person walking along the beach one day sees a drowning child in the water, he is under no legal duty to intervene, even if it would be easy for him to do so.

The exception to this rule is that there may be criminal liability for an omission where the law imposes a duty to act. This duty can arise in a number of ways - as a result of an assumption of responsibility for the care of another person, for example, or where a person has created a dangerous state of affairs, he may be under a duty to do what he can to remedy the situation.

Ex. 108. Translate the words and expressions.

- require a consequence

- conduct of the accused

- to cause a consequence

- to establish causation

- factual causation test

- legal causation

- a cause of the death

- subsequent events

- the chain of causation

- to impose

- liability for an omission

- a result of an assumption

- to remedy

- a dangerous state of affairs

- an exception

- to injure

Ex. 108. Find and translate the words.

NONESCEUCEQ

ANTICAUSO

CROUC

HESATSIBL

DATECNIC

SCIENDOR

TUSUBSEENQ

SONEARBALE

SIONMOIS

ROSADENGU

Ex. 109. Use the proper prepositions.

There are two stages to establishing causation - factual and legal causation - and both must be present …………. a conviction.

The factual causation test asks whether the conduct …………. the accused was, …………. fact, a cause of the required consequence.

The legal causation test asks whether there has been a "break …………. the chain of causation" As a general principle, an event will not break the chain …………. causation if it was reasonably foreseeable that it would occur.

Generally, the law …………. England imposes no criminal liability …………. omissions - there is no general duty to act.

The exception to this rule is that there may be criminal liability …………. an omission where the law imposes a duty to act.

Ex. 110. Find the synonyms.

consequence establish general event intervene responsibility dangerous careless conduct liability consider subsequent impose occur causation

amenability behaviour following happen incident interfere common negligent perilous prove reason responsibility result set suppose

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Ex. 111. Translate the sentences.

1. We considered him as a possible candidate. 2. They had no previous convictions. 3. Manufacturers are liable for any defects in their equipment. 4. There is one exception to this general principle. 5. The chairman felt that it was his place to intervene in the disagreement between two of his committee members. 6. The company has a responsibility to its shareholders*. 7. It's dangerous that so many people have guns. 8. It was subsequent to the death of both his parents. 9. Drivers who have more than the legal limit of alcohol were taken to the police station. 10. She was involved in serious car accident last week. 11. He supposed this was his moral duty. 12. There was not enough evidence to prove that tobacco was the cause of the disease. 13. It requires careful consideration. 14. It must be more than a coincidence that he organized the competition and his daughter won the first prize. 15. Punishment must follow conviction, not antecede it.

* shareholders - пайщики

Ex. 112. Change each sentence into reported speech and translate them. Look at the sample in the table.

The conduct of the accused was a cause of the required consequence. – The factual causation test asks whether the conduct of the accused was a cause of the required consequence.

1. The careless driving is a cause of the accident. (The jury wondered …)

2. Adequate treatment is given an injured person in hospital. (The lawyer asked …)

3. The injured person is taken to hospital. (The policeman got information …)

4. He can be considered for the job. (He wanted to know …)

5. The law of England imposes no criminal liability for omissions. (The student tried to find out …)

6. He is under no legal duty to intervene. (He demanded …)

7. This driver is a factual cause of her death. (They cleared up …)

8. It is easy for him to blackmail the actress. (His deal was to discover …)

9. The person has created a dangerous state of affairs. (They made an investigative action to know…)

10. There has been a "break in the chain of causation". (The legal causation test asks …)

Ex. 113. Read.

"Men decide far more problems by hate, love, lust, rage, sorrow, joy, hope, fear, illusion, or some other inward emotion, than by reality, authority, any legal standard, judicial precedent, or statute. "

Just for fun!

☺

Philippic (44 B.C.)

Ex. 114. Fill in proper words.

1. As a ……………… principle, an event will not break the ………………… if it was reasonably foreseeable that it would occur. 2. After a long investigation into the ………………, faulty warning lights were found to be the cause. 3. There is a juridical and theological dilemma in the ……………… of one Siamese twin predeceasing the other. 4. The Chief of Police is appointed by and is ……………… to the City Council. 5. If you buy a car and crash it before you have paid for it, you are still legally ………………. 6. She might have been killed if the neighbours hadn’t ………………. 7. Two hundred people lost their jobs as a direct ……………… of the merger*. 8. The prisoners who escaped are violent and ………………. 9. This system ……………… additional financial burdens on many people. 10. The food was excellent – I had no ……………… for complaint. 11. When exactly did the incident ………………? 12. Developments on this issue will be dealt with in a ……………… report. 13. Police are trying to ……………… the cause of death. 14. There were a number of errors and ……………… in the article. 15. It was ……………… of me to leave the door open.

* merger - слияние, объединение ( коммерческое, промышленное и т.п. )

accident, careless, chain of causation, consequence, dangerous, responsible, event, establish, general, imposes, intervened, liable, occur, omissions, cause, subsequent

Ex. 115. Translate the sentences.

1. Никто не мог поверить, что он совершил это преступление. 2. Совет ООН решил наложить санкции на страны, которые нарушают договор. 3. Суд решит, что же в действительности произошло. 4. Фактической причиной смерти этого человека явился инфаркт, но юридической – его увольнение с работы. 5. Поскольку эта работа была выполнена небрежно, вам придется ее переделать. 6. Никто из детей, игравших на дороге, не предполагал, что следствием их поступков станет авария. 7. Репортера обвинили в непрофессиональном поведении. 8. В статье обсуждаются события, которые привели к отставке (resignation) премьер-министра. 9. Он был готов принять на себя ответственность за повышение налогов. 10. Правительство наложило запрет на продажу слоновой кости. 11. Он решил, что теперь его прямая обязанность исправить ситуацию. 12. Все понимали, что уголовную ответственность за воровство будет нести не правление банка, а бухгалтер. 13. В результате его бездействия погибли три человека. 14. Следователь выяснил, что причиной смерти этого человека была болезнь, а не отравление, как подозревали родственники. 15. Необходимо принять меры – такое положение дел становится все более опасным

Ex. 116. Fill in the crossword.

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►across keys: 1. legal responsibility for something 5. The article about the trial in Magistrates’ Court appeared in the ………. and full names, ages, addresses and details of the case were given. 8. They ………. The President every four years. 9. the ………… (main) principle 11. an official of a court who decides how criminals should be punished 12. the process of one event causing or producing another event

▼down keys: 2. International Criminal Police Organization 3. likely to injure or harm sb., or to damage or destroy sth. 4. a moral rule or a strong believe that influences your actions 6. a thing that happens 7. syn. to the word property 10. a plan, thought or suggestion, esp. about what to do in a particular situation

Ex. 117. Find Russian equivalents.

to take the consequences of to measure results limited liability to impose penalties legal affairs poor state major cause subsequent destination assume responsibility fateful consequences establish the innocence good conduct to impose tax factual cause the injured person

брать на себя ответственность главная причина доказать невиновность налагать штраф нести ответственность за последствия облагать налогом ограниченная ответственность оценить результаты плохое состояние пострадавший правовые вопросы следующий пункт назначения трагические последствия фактическая причина хорошее поведение

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Ex. 118. Translate the sentences.

1. После расследования главной причиной аварии назвали небрежность (carelessness) персонала. 2. Все пострадавшие были отправлены в ближайшую больницу, врачи заверяют, что серьезных ранений нет. 3. Боюсь, государственная безопасность постарается скрыть все обстоятельства этого дела (to cover up an affair), иначе журналисты примутся обсуждать новый заговор. 4. Если вы готовы взять на себя ответственность за это решение, то я, конечно же, соглашусь с вами, хотя и считаю его слишком рискованным. 5. На него наложили штраф за нарушение общественного спокоствия. 6. Как только вы увидите этот проект, вы сможете оценить результаты нашей работы. 7. Он надеялся, что сможет обсудить все правовые вопросы с опытным юристом. 8. Мы решили не вмешиваться в дела этой компании до тех пор, пока они соблюдают закон. 9. Если бы она могла предвидеть, какие последствия повлечет за собой столь незначительное событие, то ни за что не стала бы встречаться с этим человеком.

Ex. 119. Translate the sentences.

1. A special tax is imposed on very high incomes. 2. It was a fateful decision which was ti change the rest of his life. 3. The root cause of the crime problem is poverty. 4. Payments are limited to 10% each month. 5. Coming events cast their shadows before. 6. The legal challenge was unsuccessful. 7. She failed to satisfy all the requirements for entry to the college. 8. We supposed him to be guilty. 9. Police are trying to establish the cause of death. 10. There were a number of errors and omissions in the article. 11. It was careless of me to leave the door open.