- •Contents
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. The Classification of English Law
- •Legal Personality
- •Natural persons
- •Corporations
- •Unincorporated associations
- •The Sources of English Law
- •Case law
- •Legislation
- •The Courts in Great Britain European Community Law
- •The direct applicability and direct effectivity of Community law
- •Legislation Treaty provisions
- •Regulations
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 2. Business Organisations
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading.
- •A. The Sole Trader
- •B. The Partnership
- •The existence of a business
- •Carried on in common
- •With a view of profit
- •Persons capable of being partners
- •Firm and the firm name
- •Illegal Partnerships
- •The Relations of Partners to One Another
- •Partnership Property
- •The rights of Partnership Inter Se
- •The expulsion of a partner
- •Duties of Partners Rendering true accounts and full information
- •Duty to account for secret profits
- •Liability in Torts
- •Vicarious liability
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 3. Business Organisations The Registered Company
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. C. The Registered Company
- •Unlimited liability companies
- •Limited liability companies
- •Private and public companies limited by shares
- •Groups of Companies: Holding and Subsidiary Companies
- •Separate legal person
- •The Constitution of a Registered Company
- •The contents of the Memorandum
- •The name clause
- •Change of name
- •Common law restrictions on choice of name: ‘passing off’
- •The registered office clause
- •The capital clause
- •Company Promoters
- •Fiduciary duties of promoters
- •Provisional Contracts by Public Companies
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 4. Business Organisations The Registered Company as Itself
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. The Directors
- •The appointment of directors
- •The retirement of directors
- •Age restrictions on directors
- •Disqualification of directors
- •Duty to disqualify unfit directors of insolvent companies
- •The Company Secretary
- •The Enforcement of Directors’ Duties
- •Common law exceptions to the rule in Foss V. Harbottle
- •Illegal acts
- •Personal rights of a shareholder
- •The form of the minority action.
- •Statutory exceptions to Foss V. Harbottle
- •Just and equitable winding up
- •Department of Trade investigations.
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 5. Shares and Shareholders
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. Shares and Shareholders
- •The rights and liabilities of the shareholder
- •Registered and bearer shares
- •Mortgages of shares
- •Classes of share
- •Variation of shareholders’ rights
- •Becoming a Member of a Company
- •Ceasing to be Member
- •Transfer of Shares
- •Restrictions on transfers
- •The Register of Members
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main point of the text. Unit 6. Consumer Protection
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •Merger – поглощение, слияние компаний
- •2. Text for reading. Aims of Competition Law
- •The Fair Trading Act 1973
- •Control of Rogue Dealers
- •Monopolies
- •Mergers
- •The Consumer Protection Act 1987
- •Defective product
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 7. Bankruptcy
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. Bankruptcy
- •Persons who can be made bankrupt
- •The bankruptcy petition
- •The consequences of the bankruptcy order
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. Definition of Agency
- •Types of Agent
- •The Authority of the Agent
- •By conscent of the principal
- •Ratification
- •Authority by operation of the law: agency of necessity
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text.
- •1. Words to be remembered. Tort – деликт, гражданское правонарушение
- •2. Text for reading.
- •Importance of Tortious Liability
- •Torts affecting the person
- •Torts affecting property
- •Torts affecting economic rights
- •Torts affecting reputation
- •Torts affecting rights generally
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 10. The Law of Contract
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. The Law of Contract
- •Essentials of a Contract
- •Contracts for the Sale of Goods
- •The Form of the Contract
- •The Implied Terms in a Contract for the Sale of Goods
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 11. Contracts of Employment
- •1. Words to be remembered.
- •2. Text for reading. Contracts of Employment The Contract for Service and the Contract for Services
- •The distinguishing criteria
- •The position of casual workers
- •The position of temporary workers
- •Vicarious Liability
- •Continuity of Employment
- •Formation of the Contract of Employment.
- •Terms implied into a contract of employment by the common law
- •Terms implied into contracts of employment by statute
- •Unfair dismissal
- •Remedies for unfair dismissal
- •Transfers of undertakings.
- •Fixed Term and Performance Contracts
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 12. The Nature and Classification of Business Property
- •1. Words to be learned.
- •2. Text for reading. The Nature and Classification of Business Property
- •Introduction into English Law of Real Property
- •Freehold estates
- •Leasehold estates
- •Equitable estates
- •Legal and equitable estates compared
- •Rights Over the Property of Another
- •Easements and profits
- •Restrictive covenants
- •The Reforms of 1925
- •Registered and Unregistered Conveyancing
- •Unregistered conveyancing
- •Registered conveyancing
- •The Classification of Estates and Interest in Land: Unregistered and Registered Unregistered land
- •Registered land
- •Choses in Possession
- •Choses in Action
- •Assignable choses in action
- •Negotiable choses
- •Negotiable instruments.
- •Intellectual Property Rights Trade marks and brand names
- •3. Questions.
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text. Unit 13. The Nature of Security
- •1. Words to be learned.
- •2. Text for reading. Securities for Loans The Nature of a Security
- •Mortgages of Land
- •Legal mortgages
- •Mortgage by demise.
- •Mortgages and reality of consent
- •Priority and Protection of Mortgagees
- •Mortgage protection in unregistered conveyancing
- •Mortgage protection in registered land
- •3. Questions
- •4. Find the following sentences in the text.
- •5. Recite the main points of the text.
- •Vocabulary
- •Latin terms
Groups of Companies: Holding and Subsidiary Companies
A group is the term used to describe a number of related companies. A holding company is at the head of a group of companies, all of which are subsidiaries of the holding company. The relationship between holding and subsidiaries may be very complex. The classic example is the Maxwell group of companies.
The legal definition of a subsidiary company states that a company is a subsidiary of another company if that other company:
holds a majority of the voting rights in it, or
is a member of it and has the right to appoint or remove a majority of its board of directors, or
is a member of it and controls alone, pursuant to an agreement with other shareholders or members, a majority of the voting rights in it, or if it is a subsidiary of a company which is itself a subsidiary of that other company.
A company is a ‘wholly-owned subsidiary’ of another company if it has no members except that other and that other’s wholly-owned subsidiaries.
A holding company must generally prepare group accounts in which the financial situation of holding and subsidiary company is consolidated as if they were one person. A subsidiary company may not ordinarily be a member of its holding company; and cannot give financial assistance to persons wishing to buy shares in the holding company.
Separate legal person
A company is separate from the shareholders. This was established in the celebrated case of Salomon v. Salomon & Co. Ltd [1897]. The plaintiff, a manufacturer of boots and shoes, incorporated the defendant company with a registered capital of £40 000 to take over the business. At that time the law required at least seven people for the formation of a company and this was achieved by Mr. Salomon together with his wife and five children acting as subscribers and taking one share each in the venture. Subsequently Mr Salomon sold the business, which he valued at over £39 000, to the company, receiving in return £20 000 in fully paid shares, £10 000 in cash of which £9000 went in discharging debts and liabilities of the business and £10 000 in debentures secured on the assets of the company. At the time of the collapse of the company, these debentures were held by a bank from whom Mr. Salomon had raised money to keep the company going. In the trial court the judge suggested that the company had a right of indemnity against Mr. Salomon. The other signatories of the memorandum were mere nominees of Mr. Salomon and the company was Mr. Salomon in another form. He used the company as his agent. The view of the company as agent of and trustee for him was also recognised by Court of Appeal. However, the House of Lords decided that ‘The company is at law a different person altogether from the subscribers to the memorandum: and the company is not in law the agent of the subscribers or trustee for them’. Thus Mr. Salomon was not liable to indemnify the company’s creditors. This has been called a ‘calamitous decision’ by O. Kahn-Freund (1944), recognising the validity of ‘one man companies’.
A person can also be controller, managing director and an employee of the company under a separate contract: Lee v. Lee’s Air Farming Ltd [1961]. This principle of the ‘veil of incorporation’ separates the incorporators of a company from the company itself. The veil of incorporation also operates between the companies in a group so that each company is regarded as a separate legal entity. Thus in Lonrho Ltd v. Shell Petroleum Co. Ltd [1980] the plaintiff failed to obtain disclosure of documents which were held by a subsidiary.
Whereas partnership property is jointly owned by all the partners, a company owns its own property and no member of the company has any interest in it. In Tunstall v. Steigman [1962], Mrs S ran a business in one of a pair of shops of which she was the landlord. The other shop was leased to Mrs T. Mrs S sought to terminate Mrs T’s lease to expand her own business into the second shop. She needed to establish that she needed the premises to carry on a business run by herself. She had earlier transferred her business to a limited company of which she was the controller and the court rejected her application on the grounds that the business was owned and operated by the company and not by her.