II. Read and translate the following text:

A ship is a large vessel that floats on water. Ships may be found on lakes, seas, and rivers and they allow for a variety of activities, such as the transport of persons or goods, fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare.

Fig. 11. Main parts of ship. 1: Smokestack or Funnel; 2: Stern; 3: Propeller and Rudder; 4: Portside (the right side is known as starboard); 5: Anchor; 6: Bulbous bow; 7: Bow; 8: Deck; 9: Superstructure

The history of boats parallels the human adventure. The first known boats date back to the Neolithic Period, about 10,000 years ago.

The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set vertically in a boat, these sails gave early ships great range. This allowed man to explore widely.

Before the introduction of the compass, celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117. The true mariner's compass, using a pivoting needle in a dry box, was invented in Europe no later than 1300.

Ships are difficult to classify, mainly because there are so many criteria to base classification on. A much used classification is based on their propulsion; thus they are categorized into the following two types:

• Sailing ships

• Motor ships

Sailing ships are ships which are propelled solely by means of sails. Motor ships are ships which are propelled by mechanical means to propel itself. Motor ships include ships that propel itself trough the use of both sail and mechanical means. Other classification systems exist that use criteria such as:

• The numbers of hulls, giving categories like monohull, catamaran, and trimaran.

• The shape and size, giving categories like dinghy, keelboat, and icebreaker.

• The building materials used, giving steel, aluminum, wood, fiberglass, and plastic.

• The type of propulsion system used, giving human-propelled, mechanical, and sails.

• The epoch in which the vessel was used, triremes of Ancient Greece, man' o' wars, eighteenth century.

• The geographic origin of the vessel, many vessels are associated with a particular region, such as the pinnace of Northern Europe, the gondolas of Venice, and the junks of China.

• The manufacturer, series, or class.

Another way to categorize ships and boats is based on their use, as described by Paulet and Presles. This system includes military ships, commercial vessels, fishing boats, pleasure craft and competitive boats. In this section, ships are classified using the first four of those categories, and adding a section for lake and river boats, and one for vessels which fall outside these categories.

III. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a ship?

2. When do the first known boats date back?

3. Who began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails?

4. What was the main method for navigation at sea, before the introduction of the compass?

5. The true mariner’s compass, using a pivoting needle in a dry box, was invented in Europe no later than 1300, wasn’t it?

6. Are ships difficult to classify? Why?

7. What types are ships categorized into?

8. What are sailing ships?

9. What are motor ships?

10. What criteria do other classification systems use?