Direction

Direction is a second universal spatial concept. Like location, it has more than one meaning and can be expressed in absolute or relative terms. Absolute direction is based upon the cardinal points of north, south, east, and west. These appear uniformly and independently in all cultures, derived from the obvious "givens" of nature: the rising and setting of the sun for east and west, the sky location of the noontime sun and of certain fixed stars for north and south. We also commonly use relative or relational directions. In the United States we go "out west", "back east", or "down south"; we worry about conflict in the "near east", or economic competition from the "far eastern countries". These directional references are culturally based and locationally variable, despite their reference to cardinal compass points. The near and far east locate parts of Asia from the European perspective, they are retained in the Americas by custom and usage, even though one would normally travel westward across the pacific, for example, to reach the “far East'" from California, British Columbia, or Chile. For many Americans, "back East", and "out West" are reflections of the migration paths of earlier generations for whom home was in the eastern part of the country, to which they might look back. "Up North" and "down South" reflect our accepted custom of putting north at the top and south at the bottom of our maps.

A s s i g n m e n t s

1. Comprehension questions;

1.What is a second universal spatial concept? 2. What is absolute direction? 3.What is absolute direction derived from? 4. What are relative directions based on? 5. From what perspective are parts of Asia located? 6. What were migration paths of earlier Americans? 7. What is the custom of putting North and South on maps?

6. Give a short summary of the text.

3. Discuss the content of the text in the form of a dialogue.

Lesson 4.

Text A. Transit and its adjustments

1. Read and memorize the following words:

altitude - висота

appear – з’являтись, очевидно, напевно

attach - приєднувати

clamp - зажим, закріплювати, закріпний гвинт

eyepiece- окуляр

fall - попадати

fasten - закріплювати

fit - підганяти всередину

head -. головка

illuminate -. oсвітлювати

invert —- перевертати, переставляти

lack - невистачати

level(v) - вирівнювати, нівелювати

lie - лежати

loosen - послабляти

motion - рух

opposite – протилежний

proceed - переходити, продовжувати

reflector - рефлектор, дзеркало

rotate - повертати

set up - встановити

spindle - вісь, круг

standard - стійка, підставка

tap - постукати

telescope - труба теодоліту

tighten - затягувати

transit - теодоліт

travel - пересуватись

turn - повертати

upper - верхній

vernier – верньєр

11. Expressions for the text comprehension:

apparent error - наявна помилка

as follows - як нижче зазначено

bubble tube - трубка круглого рівня

capstan screw- виправний гвинт

circular plate - кругла пластина

compound objective - складний об’єктив

cross-hair ring - сітка ниток

erecting transit - теодоліт з прямим зображенням

graduated circle - градуйований круг

leveling screw - підйомний гвинт

line of sight - лінія візування

lower plate - нижня пластина

opposing screws – виправний гвинт

plate bubble - вісь рівня

stadia hairs - горизонтальні паралельні нитки в теодоліті

tangent screw -мікрометренний гвинт

telescope tube - труба теодоліту

upper plate - верхня пластина

Transit and its adjustments

An engineer's transit has two spindles, one fitting inside the-other, to each of which is fastened a horizontal circulаг plate.Another spindle is attached to a lower plate, on which is a graduated circle, and the inner spindle carries an upper plate, to which the verniers and standards holding the telescope are attached. The motion of these horizontal plates is controlled by clamps and tangent screws. On the upper plate are two spirit levels, the plates are levelled by 4 (sometimes 3) levelling screws.

Transits having a vertical arc are called engineer's (or surveyor's) transits A plain transit lacks these attachments.

A telescope has a compound objective and an eyepiece composed of 4 lenses, if the instrument is an erecting transit, two lenses if inverting. An inverting instrument gives a much better illuminated field. Between the objective and eyepiece is the cross-hair ring held in its concentric position by four opposing screws, the heads being outside the telescope tube.

Special attachments are; a) a dark eyepiece for observing the sun; b) a diagonal or a prismatic eyepiece for sighting high altitudes; c) a reflector attached to the telescope for illuminating cross-hairs when working in the dark; d) stadia hairs which are two extra horizontal cross-hairs for measuring distances by stadia.

Adjustments of the transit are: a) to make the plane of plate bubbles perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument, b) to make line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis; c) to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument .

Bubble tubes. Bring plate bubbles to centers of respective tubes by turning levelling screws. Turn 180° and correct half of the apparent error by turning capstan screws of bubble tubes. Adjust each bubble independently.

Line of sight. First, adjust the vertical cross-hair to lie in the plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Set up and level the instrument. Sight the vertical hair on a well defined point. Clamp both plates, and move the telescope up and down. If the point does not appear to travel along a vertical cross-hair loosen screws holding a cross-hair ring, and by tapping lightly on one screw, rotate the ring until the above condition is fulfilled. Then tighten screws and proceed with the second part of adjustment as follows: sight the telescope at point A (200 to 300 ft. away), and clamp the vertical axis; invert the telescope on its horizontal axis and set point B at about the same elevation as A, in line of sight, and about the same distance from the instrument as A. Loosen the clamp, turn horizontally and sight A again; damp horizontal motion, invert the telescope on the horizontal axis and if line of sight falls on B it is in adjustment. If not, set point C in line of sight beside point B. Mark or note point D one-fourth the distance between C and B, measured from C. To adjust, move the cross-hair ring until D is intersected, by loosening the screw on one side of the telescope and tightening an opposite one.

E x e r c i s e s

I. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following international words from the text;

concentric, diagonal, prismatic, perpendicular, center, control, engineer, special, correct

II. Find in the text adjective + noun word-combinations and translate them into Ukrainian.

III Write out of the text word combinations consisting of two nouns.

IV. .Find sentences with participle 1 and gerund and translate them,

V. Finish the sentences according to the text:

1.Between the objective and the eyepiece is ….. 2. On the upper plate ….. 3.Clamp both plates and …..

VI. Group the words to correspond to the sequence of the key items in the text:

clamp, levelling, screw, horizontal axis, perpendicular, dark eyepiece, bubble

VII. Comprehension questions:

1.Where is a horizontal circular plate fastened? 2. How many spindles has the transit? 3. How is the motion of horizontal plates controlled? 4. 'Where are spirit levels situated? 4. How many lenses has an erecting transit? 5. What is the difference between the erecting and inverting transits? 6. Where is the cross-hair ring situated? 7. What are special attachments in the transit? 8. What is a reflector used for? 9. What is the attachment for sighting high altitudes? 10. What is the position of the vertical cross-hair in line of sight? Ii. When do you loosen screws holding a cross-hair ring?

VIII. Speak about:

.a) a telescope;

b) special attachment of a transit,

c) bubble tubes,

d) procedure of adjusting line of sight.

Text B How to interpret aerial photographs

I. Read aloud and memorize the following words:

aid - допомога

art - мистецтво

bound (v) - обмежувати, межувати

examination -. oгляд, дослідження

extreme – крайність, край

ground -. грунт

identify - розпізнавати, пізнавати, ідентифікувати

image - зображення

interpretation - тлумачення, інтерпретація

object - об'єкт

print - відбиток, фотокартка

reflect - відображати, відбивати

relief - рельєф

result (v) - мати результатом, закінчуватись

scale - масштаб, мірило

shadow - тінь

shape - форма

size – розмір

skilled - кваліфікований

stereoscope - стереоскоп

tone – тон

II. Expressions for the text comprehension;

a great deal - багато

best of all - найкраще всього

cultivated field - оброблюване поле

curved line - крива лінія

irregular edge -- нерівний край

keep in mind – пам'ятати

man-made features - штучні риcи, характеристики

natural feature - природня риса, особливість

photo interpretation - тлумачення, інтерпретація фото

reading glass - лупа, збільшуване скло

shadow of gray-=shade of gray ~ сіра тінь

source of light - джерело світла

straight line - пряма лінія

take picture - зняти фото

visible details - видимі деталі