§ 466. We do not dwell here on the so-called loose apposi­tions because the latter (as well as other loose (detached) parts of the sentence) are discussed in detail elsewhere. 2 Extensions

§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries, in the terminology of O. Jespersen.

¹ Op. cit., p. 47.

² В. Л. Каушанская and others, op. cit., p. 259,

Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Штелинг, op. cit., p. 360, etc.

268

In a simple sentence extensions may be single words or combinations of words, including complexes.

Doreen's voice sounded too brisk and too loud. (Cusack).

Her little resolute face under its copper crown was suspi­ciously eager and aglow. (Galsworthy).

The creature's eyes were alight with a somber frenzy. (London).

Then he became aware of Abbey standing before the big open fire in the hall. (Cronin).

§ 468. W. Francis distinguishes between such 'adjective qualifiers' as very, quite, rather, pretty, mighty, somewhat, a bit, a little, so, too, more, most, less, least, enough, indeed, on the one hand, and such as exceedingly, enormously, etc., on the other, since the latter "are marked as adverbs by the adverb suffix -ly and can appear in positions regularly occu­pied by adverbs." ¹

We do not think this distinction relevant when analysing extensions as a part of the sentence which covers different morphological classes of words. Besides, most of the 'adjective qualifiers' are connected with more than one part of speech, as W. Francis himself admits: "Since qualifiers also appear with adverbs, they are not exclusively adjective determiners" ².

Connectives

§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a second­ary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions.

She played and sang to him. (London).

Connectives differ from the previously mentioned second­ary parts of a simple sentence in not being, as a rule, adjuncts of certain head-words.

1. They usually connect two words both or neither of which might be regarded as their head-words;

2. The words they connect belong to various parts of speech. With conjunctions this refers to both right-hand and left- hand connections (see § 358). With prepositions it refers

279.

¹ The Structure of American English. New York, 1958, pp. 278— Ib

9 Хаймовнч и др.

269,

chiefly to their left-hafid connections (see § 347), but even on their right they are attached not only to nouns, but also to pronouns, gerunds, complexes.

§ 470. Speaking about various combinations of units within a sentence H. Kufner writes: "The above three types of structure can all be regarded as examples of expansion, in which each phrase as a whole still performs the same function as its center ¹ or centers. Quite different is the fourth type of structure, in which the phrase as a whole functions differently from either of its two parts ... German (like English) has three types of centerless phrases:

1. Prepositions-object: with me, from here, in a factory,

2. Subjects-predicate: he's coming,

3. Subordinating conjunctions-subordinate clause" ².

As we see, predications apart, only prepositions and con­junctions form combinations that cannot be regarded as a centre (in a simple sentence it is a head-word) and its adjunct. Using the terminology of A. Martinet (see 'note', p. 240) we may say that prepositional and conjunctional phrases are centrifugal, not centripetal.

We have to disagree with H. Kufner on one point only. We make no distinction (with regard to the problem discussed) between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. In our opinion and John, or Mary are as centreless or centrifugal as with John, to Mary. Of course, if we use both connections of a conjunction, the resulting combination (boys and girls) with two centres (or head-words) can substitute for one of its head-words. But it is similar with prepositions: A garden of roses can substitute for a garden, and go to Moscow can replace

го-Specifiers

§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes or extensions. They do not link any parts of the sentence like connectives. They are not parenthetical elements. :So they make a distinct secondary part of the sentence, spec­ifiers. The name just indicates their function. In simple

¹ What we call the head-word.

² Op. cit.

270

sentences they specify various words and combinations of words by intensifying their meaning (even), by singling them out (only), by showing that something similar was already mentioned (also), etc.

E.g. Is he a terribly good judge of a horse?

Yes. Of anything else, Dinny — no. (Galsworthy). I've tried that too, Aunty. (Ib.). / was only brilliant once. (Ib.).

§ 472. The articles resemble particles in being semi-notional and in functioning as specifiers. But they -specify only one part of speech, nouns. In this they resemble attri­butes.

Parenthetical Elements