§ 254. The action it denotes may either coincide with the moment of speech or cover a more or less lengthy period of time including the moment of speech.

¹ "The distinctions of person and number (he has walked, I have walked, etc.) are not relevant dimensions of the chronological system. Forms representing those distinctions are in free variation in respect to the system Herein the distinctions will be ignored and the various forms used interchangeably." W. Diver. The Chronological System of the Englts/г Verb, Word. 1963, v. 19, No. 2, p. 141.

158

The present non-continuous non-perfect thus shows a dia­lectical combination of polar meanings '.

It denotes an action as occurring at the moment of speech when found with verbs not commonly used in the continuous aspect ² (as in \ou see the joke, don't you?), or when the situation of speech shows that it is the fact itself that is import­ant, but not the progress of the action, as in There goes Tom. Why do you s h о и t at me? -

When the present non-continuous non-perfect expresses an action that goes on forever and consequently takes place at the moment of speech as well ³, it implies that the state­ment was true in the past, it is true now and it will continue to be true in the future ⁴. It implies that time is unimportant to the truth of the statement.

E. g. Radio waves, t r a v e I in straight lines, or Tissues consist of cells.

When so used it is referred to as the 'supertemporal' or 'extemporal' present.

We do not hold with these terms since action cannot de­velop otherwise than in time. I. P. Ivanova aptly suggests that it should be termed 'omnitemporal' rather than 'super-temporal' or 'extemporal' ⁶.

As seen from the examples the present non-continuous non-perfect is particularly well suited to formulate the laws of science.

§ 255. In a context showing that reference is made to the past, the present non-continuous non-perfect may be used to denote past events, mostly presented as the speaker's reminiscences.

When employed in this function it is often termed 'histor­ic' or 'dramatic' present. It can only be used if there is some­thing in the context or in the situation of speech to show that the events described belong to the past.

/ remember it as vividly аь if it had happened yesterday. The old general shakes my hand, smiles and says: Well done, son. (The Worker).

¹ В. В. В и н о г р а д о в, ор ей., р. 572.

² See § 221

³О. Есперсен. Философия грамматики ⁴ The English Journal, 1961, December, No. 9, ⁶ И. П. И в а н о в a, op. cit, p. 33.

M., 1958, p. 660.

p. 312.

159

Curme also mentions the so-called 'annalistic' present, a variety of the historical present used when some well known events or public figures of the past are spoken of. No other reference to the past may then be necessary.

E. g. Then Edward the Elder wins back Essex. (Hearn-shaw).

The historical present functions as a stylistic device im­parting vividness and expressiveness to narration, bringing past events nearer the hearer (or reader), making them unfold before the speaker's eyes. Somewhat allied to this is the use of the present non-continuous non-perfect when we quote an old author feeling that his words 'have weight in the ques­tions of the hour' (Curme).

Galsworthy says that humour is as essential to man as the scent to the rose.

§ 256. The present non-continuous non-perfect sometimes occurs with such verbs as to hear, to forget, to learn, to tell with reference to a past act where one might expect the pre­sent perfect to show that the act is viewed as one of present interest.

We h,e a r you are engaged to be married. (Jerome).

§ 257. The present non-continuous non-perfect may be used to denote a future action. The usage has been handed down from Old English with its two-tense system, in xyhich a future action was regularly denoted by the present tense.

When employed in the simple sentence to denote a future act the present non-continuous non-perfect mostly occurs with verbs denoting concrete acts ^l (such as to come, to leave, to sail, to go, to dine, to break up, to graduate, to meet, to see, to remain, to start, to take place, etc.).

When so used it has a distinct modal force. It is used with the implication of the certainty of fulfilment².

Consequently one can see that though the usage is a very old one, it has acquired a new meaning not observed in Old English.

Quite naturally, the present non-continuous non-perfect used in reference to the future occurs, as a 'rule, in a context

1. ^{See И. П. Иванов a, op. cit., p. 41.}

2. Q. Curme, op. cit., p. 356.

160

indicating futurity (with such adverbials as tonight, tomor­row, next week, etc.).

It is regularly found in adverbial clauses of time and condition if the verb of the principal clause denotes a future act, i. e. if it is used a) in the future tense, b) in the imperat­ive mood, c) in the present tense and is followed by an infin­itive with a future meaning.

/ will try and be at Throop Street if nothing interferes. (Dreiser).

Answer by special message when you g e~~t this. (Ib.).

/ want to speak with you before we meet at the theatre. (Ib.).

L. S. Barkhudarov and D. A. Shteling ^x see the cause of this usage in the modal tinge of the present non-continuous non-perfect. In their opinion'the present in the subordinate clause stresses the reality of the condition or circumstances represented by the subordinate clause. It leaves some room for doubt, however, because it does not explain why the usage is confined to definite types of clauses.

I. P. Ivanova ² believes that the use of the present in the subordinate clauses of time and condition results from the fact that the idea of futurity is sufficiently clear from the form of the verb in the principal clause and the semantics of the conjunction.

The form of the verb in the subordinate clause expresses no temporal meaning of its own, and is adjusted to that of the principal clause, which accounts for the retention of the older form (of the present tense) in the subordinate clause.

§ 258. We can say that as compared with other groups of verbal grammemes the present indefinite non-perfect is the richest in temporal meanings, since it serves to represent an action as belonging not only to the present, but to the past and to the future as well.

The Past Non-Continuous Non-Perfect

§ 259. As a part of the verb system it may be said to pre­sent an action in the past (past tense) unspecified as to its continuity or entirety (non-continuous or common aspect) or correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).

¹ Op cit., p. 409.

² И П Иванова, op. cit., p. 43.

6 Хаймович и др

161

Used in speech it can denote isolated acts, a succession of events, recurring actions, etc., the aspective colouring being dependent on the meaning of the verbs and the context it occurs in

E.g. I looked in her eyes again. (Hemingway).

/ looked in her eyes, put my arm around her and kissed her. (Ib.).

In the late summer of that year we I i v e d in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. (Ib.).

§ 260. Since it denotes an action which precedes the moment of speech, i. e. it is associated with a time limit, it is not very well suited to represent permanent actions ^l, in other words, it is less general in sense than the present non-continuous non-perfect, that is why it is but rarely used in 'omnitemporal', 'generic' meaning, though this is not alto­gether impossible.

E. g. Faint heart never won fair lady. (Proverb).

The idea conveyed is that what was true for the past is true for the present and the future. Likewise in It w a s ever thus ². This is however, a purely literary device.

§ 261. The past non-continuous non-perfect is largely used in narration. This is, as it were, its main sphere as seen from the examples below. The share of this grammeme in narration with reference to the past is about 82.4 per cent.

My friend s a w the priest from our mess going by in the street, walking carefully in the slush, and p о и п d e~d on the window to attract his attention. The priest looked up. He s a w us and smiled. My friend motioned for him to come in. (Hemingway).

§ 262. The past non-continuous non-perfect functions as a relative tense when denoting a future act viewed from the past (with a modal tinge of certainty, see § 257).

E. g. I was duly informed that school broke in a fort­night and my services would no longer be required. (Buck).

¹ И. П. Иванова, op. cit., p. 46.

² Quoted by M. Mincoff. An English Grammar. Sofia, 1958, p. 128.

162

§ 263. Another instance of its relative use may be seen in cases like Tell her I died blessing her ' in which died de­notes an act in the past as viewed from the future with a distinct subjective connotation of 'inevitability'.

The Future Non-Continuous Non-Perfect

§ 264. The future non-continous non-perfect is analyt­ical in structure. It is built up with the help of the word-mor­phemes 'shall' and 'will'.

In certain cases it is no easy matter to say whether shall or will is a word-morpheme or a modal verb. In a sentence like / am afraid he will refuse to confess we cannot say with any degree of certainty that will is a pure word-morpheme without any vestige of its original modal sense. It is somewhat easier to tell a word-morpheme from a modal verb in oral speech because modal verbs, as a rule, bear a stronger stress.

I. P. Ivanova ² believes that the obliteration of the modal meanings of shall and will has proceeded at a slow pace be­cause their modal meanings easily go along with the concept of futurity.

§ 265. Some grammarians (among them O. Jespersen ³, G. Curme ⁴ do not recognize the existence of the pure future in English since, in their opinion shall and will groups are in all cases modal phrases.

The fallacy of these views is proved by the following facts:

1) When the unstressed shall is regularly used for the 1-st person and the unstressed will — for the 2-nd and the 3-rd (in British use), as a rule, no original modal meanings of these verbs can be felt (on the whole).

E. g. I shall be forty next autumn. They will know it in due time. It will take place next month.

Note. We read, however, in Linguistic Change in Present-Day English: "The distinctions formerly made between shall and wilt are being lost, and

f

¹ M Mincoff, op. cit, p 177

² Op. cit , p. 55

³ Философия грамматики, М., 1958, p. 304—306. * Op. cit., p 362.

163

will is coming increasingly to be used instead

of shall people increasingly use / would and

we would in contexts where previously should was normal" '.

2) In structures with the enclitic '// no specific modal meanings can be felt. As a language unit it conveyes the sum of its elementary meanings, so it presents an action in the future (future tense) unspecified as to its continuity or en­tirety (non-continuous or common aspect) or correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).

§ 266. In speech the future non-continuous non-perfect may denote future acts of practically any description — iso­lated events, continuous actions, habitual, recurrent acts, the nature of the action being specified by the context and the meaning of the verb.

E. g. It will en fail some hard work. (Daily Worker). Sometimes I am afraid I w i I I breakoffa finger as one break a stick of chalk. (Hemingway). / hope you will live forever. (Ib.).

The future non-continuous non-perfect occurs but seldom in narration, in which a chain of events is spoken of, because narration is<seldom referred to the future ².

Like the past non-continuous non-perfect it is not very well suited to denote permanent actions since it is associated with a certain time sphere (it represents an action which is to take place after the moment of speech). However, its use in the 'generic' or ornnitemporal meaning is not altogether impossible. What will be true for the future is viewed as true in general.

"Young men will b e young men", said the countess. (Jerome).

Cf. Как аукнется, так и откликнется.

Since the future tense denotes an action not yet realized but one that is to take place, that is, an action planned, ex­pected, anticipated, etc., it is natural that the future tense often acquires a modal tinge of supposition ³.

¹ Ch. Barber, op. cit, p. 134—135.

² I. P. Ivanova, op. cit., p. 36.

³ An analogous modal colouring is observed in Russian. See В. В. В и- н о г р а д о в, op. cit., p. 575.

164

Hence the not uncommon use of the future non-contin­uous non-perfect to express supposition with reference to the present.

That w i I I b e your British hospital? (Randall).

The Present Continuous Non-Perfect

§ 267. The basic meaning of the present continuous non-perfect as a language unit, resulting from the synthesis of its elementary grammatical meanings is to denote an action as a concrete process viewed in its progress (the continuous aspect) associated with the present (the present tense) and unspecified as to its correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).

E. g. You ought not to talk that way when lam just s p e a k i n g foi your own good. (Lewis).

§ 268. Since it functions to indicate an action in its devel­opment when used in speech it often serves as a sort of back­ground or framework to another action in the present, which is mostly of habitual, recurrent nature ¹.

E. g. Whenever she is planning a party she always throws herself into it heart and soul. (Randall).

When employed with such adverbs as always, ever, con­stantly, continually, perpetually ², etc. it expresses a contin­uous uninterrupted action. The lexical meanings of the ad­verbs neutralize the meaning of the continuous aspect (a con­crete process of limited duration), but the latter suggests a greater intensity, contributing to the emotional effect ³.

E. g.^x "It looks to me", continued Soames, "as if she were sweeter on him than he is on her. She i s always following him about". (Galsworthy).

The present continuous non-perfect here, obviously, sa­vours of irony blended with disapproval.

The present continuous non-perfect is, as it were "more emotional" than the present non-continuous non-perfect.

¹ О

² A

325.

Есперсен. Философия грамматики. М., 1958, p. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op cit., p 326.

³ А И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op. cit., р. 326—327; Г. Н. В о р о н-ц о в a, op. cit., p. 191.

165

G. Curme ¹ says that the continuous aspect "is charged ^f with feeling".

Hence it is a favourite in lively style.

E. g. How many decorations have you got, Ettore? asked

the vice-consul. He's got everything. He's the boy \ they are г и n n i n g the war for. (Hemingway).

The present continuous non-perfect is sometimes employed to denote an action in the near future. Unlike the present non-continuous non-perfect with a future sense, this is not the continuation of the Old English usage.

I. P. Ivanova ² thinks that the meaning of futurity in the present continuous non-perfect has developed out of its basic meaning: it denotes a process in its continuity which will be completed in the future. This is likely to lead to the possibility of using the present continuous non-perfect to denote an action in the near future. The usage is quite common

E. g. The doctor is coming soon. (Hemingway). / won't be in. I am dining out. (Maugham).

The present non-continuous non-perfect presents a future act as part of a fixed program, an act whose certainty is secured by certain objective conditions. The present continuous non-perfect often denotes a future act as springing from the will of the person indicated by the subject of the sentence '^d.

Hence the rarity if not the complete impossibility of sen­tences like The ship is sailing tonight.

Another point of difference between the present non-con­tinuous non-perfect and the present continuous non-perfect used with a future sense is the fact that the present contin­uous non-perfect may be so used without any accompanying adverbial modifiers of time, which is but seldom observed with the present non-continuous non-perfect.

Cf. We d i n e with the Robinsons on Monday. We a r e dining out.

It is natural that the present continuous non-perfect is employed in reference to the future in adverbial clauses of

¹ Op. cit., p. 374.

² Op. cit., p. 85.

³ I. P. Ivanova, op. cit., p. 86.

166

time and condition ', when the action is viewed in its devel­opment ².

It differs from the present non-continuous non-perfect in a similar function (apart from its aspective meaning) in indic­ating a more immediate future and being sometimes slightly incidental ³.

// you are writing home, give them my love.

It sometimes occurs with verbs which aie but rarely used in the continuous aspect ⁴ to stress the transitory, temporary nature of the action.

E. g. How are you liking your new lob? (Hornby). Is it tery tough going? he asked sympathetically. Are you hating it? (Randall).

When used with non-terminative verbs the present contin­uous non-perfect is really synonymous with the present non-continuous non-perfect.

Cf. / live in London.

I am living in London.

The difference lies in the fact that / live merely states an act, while / am living presents it in its progress and sounds more emotional and vivid.

The Past Continuous Non-Perfect

§ 269. As a "language unit this grammeme denotes an action in the past (past tense), viewed in its development (continuous aspect) and unspecified as to its being prior to some situation or not (non-perfect order).

When used in speech the past continuous non-perfect may serve as a framework for another action

E. g. The astounded male discovered that she was h а и -i n g a small rebellion of her own (Lewis).

Like the present continuous non-perfect it may be linked with such adverbs as always, constantly, ever, continually, perpetually, etc., in which case it denotes a continuous action presented with a marked emphatic force.

¹ See p. 161.

² See p. 134.

³ See M. Mincoff, op. cit., p. "See § 221,-

146.

167

E.g. He was always finding fault with everybody and they came to hate him very heartily. (Lovel).

It may occur with a relative meaning to denote a future action viewed from the past as in

They tola me the Italians were I e a v i n g the next morning. (Hemingway).

The past continuous non-perfect and the past non-con­tinuous non-perfect of non-terminative verbs are synonymous.

Cf. He I a y on his couch thinking and Hewaslying on his couch thinking, though lay just makes a bare state­ment of the action, whereas was lying stresses its conti­nuity, which makes it more expressive and picturesque.

This is, naturally, not the case with terminative verbs.

Cf. He died and He was dying (but the operation saved him).

Generally speaking, it might be said that the continuous aspect presenting an action in its development retards the narrative making one linger on descriptive scenes.

E. g. They drove the engine in reverse, then forward.

The wheels only dug in deeper. Then the car was rest­ing on the- differential again, and the wheels spun freely in the holes they had dug. (Hemingway).

M. Mincoff makes an interesting observation that in liter­ary narrative the continuous is sometimes used to give the result or consequence of a set of actions suggestive of a cer­tain stability of mood. Such passages are usually introduced by some such phrases as soon after, next moment, three days later, etc *.

They quarrelled and he broke their engagement but three days later he was having tea with her at Claridge's. (Black).

With verbs not commonly used in the continuous aspect it emphasizes the transient, temporary, limited nature of the act, ² as in / thought 1 wasbeing unusually considerate. (Wilson).

¹ Op. cit., p. 148.

³ "The shift from 'He has been a loyal subject' to 'He was being a loyal subject' shifts the emphasis from an indefinite state of affairs to a definite action." W. Diver, op. cit., p. 158.

168

The Future Continuous Non-Perfect

§ 270. If viewed as a language unit, it represents a future action (future tense) viewed in its development (continuous aspect) and not presented as prior to another act or situation (non-perfect order).

E. g. In the afternoon they will be quarrelling in the usual style, no doubt. (Heyer).

When employed with terminative verbs, it expresses a series of repeated acts in the future.

E. g. He'll be т e e t i n g all sorts of undesirable Qgople unless well looked after. (Grey).

When used i-n speech it sometimes differs from the present non-continuous non-perfect and the present continuous non- perfect employed in reference to the future'in presenting an action which will result from the constraint of circumstances irrespective of the speaker's will. The future continuous non- perfect, as it were, brings to the fore the objective nature of the action; in this case the continuous nature of the action may be suppressed. When thus employed it is markedly emphatic. ,

E. g. And now you'll be telling me that I've made a mess of it. I know you'll be wanting waffles. (Wilson).

The usage is so common that I. P. Ivanova ' is even in­clined to think that the future continuous non-perfect is grad­ually developing into what she calls a "pure tense form".

As we do not recognize the existence of pure tense forms (unless they are those of members of tense opposemes such as (I) write—(7) wrote— (I)'II write) we interpret this meaning of the future continuous non-perfect as one of its secondary meanings arising in speech.

The Present Non-Continuous Perfect

§ 271. As a part of the language system it may be said to present an action as associated with the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-continuous aspect) and prior to some situation in the present (perfect order)

¹ Op. cit, p. 91.

169

E.g. I h а и е never h a d a baby and I've never even loved anyone. (Hemingway). / am terribly glad f v e met you at last. (Gals­worthy).

\ou'v e seen Stella? Of course, three times. (Mau­gham).

In certain speech surroundings it may be used to express priority to some situation in the present taken in a wider sense, as it were, priority to the present in general ¹.

Where you British irritate us is that you have lost the spirit of enquiry. (Galsworthy).

Parliament consolidates what has become public practice. (Galsworthy).

§ 272. When used with terminative verbs denoting an action capable of producing some tangible change in the subject or the object the action is connected with, the present perfect regularly acquires a resultative meaning unless the context shows that the action is presented as a repeat­ed one.

E. g. I think we two have found the higher love.

(Shaw).

Our connection in the hotel has gone west and the

business is finished. (Maugham).

I've lost my nerve. Sid. I shall kill myself. (Ib.). But no resultativity is felt in Г ve often lost my head that way. (Lewis).

If a verb, though terminative, is one which does not denote an action affecting the state of the subject or the object, there is no connotation of resultativity.

It has occurred quite unexpectedly. (Rraddon).

§ 273. When employed with non-terminative verbs (or with verbs of double lexical nature used in their non-termin­ative capacity) the present non-continuous perfect often denotes an action as preceding the present moment and still going on at this moment. When so used it is often termed 'the inclusive perfect'.

¹Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Ш т e л и н г, op. cit, p. 176.

170

I. P. Ivanova ^г has produced cogent arguments to the effect that the inclusive sense is not inherent in the present perfect as such, but results from its environment, its being used in a certain context showing that the action still goes on; it is, as it were, one of its meanings.

E.g. I have been here all the time, operating. (He­mingway).

... In recent months there has b e e n in Paris a growing interest in your work. (Cronin).

If there is no adverbial, the inclusive meaning is not felt.

E.g. He ha s I i v e d in London.

It has been a terrible summer. You cannot be­lieve how it h a s b e e n. (Hemingway).