8. Assimilation, its types, directions, stages and degrees. Non-obligatory assimilation of fluent colloquial speech.

Assimilation is a process, found in all languages at causes speech sounds to be modified in a way which makes them more similar to their neighbours. Assimilation is said to be “progressive” when a sound influences a following sound, or regressive when a sound influences one which precedes it. We can distinguish types of assimilation according to: direction, degree of completeness, degree of stability.Direction: progressive, regressive. According to its degree: Complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. Incomplete when a likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. Dictionaries normally do not show elisons in order to avoid adding a large number of additional pronunciation that are typical of casual speech. A common example is the loss of t and d in combination with other consonant. (act badly) Accidental or positional assimilation at word boundaries are made by English people in rapid colloquial speech. The alveolar consonant t, d, n, s,ш is word final position often assimilate to the place of articulation of the following word initial consonant.

9. Describing vowels systematically. Glide-vowel correspondences. Cardinal vowels.

Vowel is the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air. In phonetic terms, each vowel has a number of properties that distinguish it from other vowels. These include the shape of the lips:

Unrounded: i:, I, e ae, ^, a:, 3: e (наоборот),

Rounded: u: , o

The front, the middle of the bade of the tongue:

Front: I, e, Central: a Back u o Close I u Mid e Open a

Glides can be described in two ways, because they are essentially the non-syllabic equivalents of vavels. Thus [j] is a palatal central approximant, but it is so describable as a high front unrounded glide and is thus the consonant counter part of [i].

Cardinal vowel is one of the vowels of the standard classification system used in phonetic.

Early in the 20 century the English phonetician Daniel Jones worked out a set of “Cardinal vowels” that students learning phonetics could be taught to make and which would serve as reference points that other vowels could be related to. The primary includes the unrounded front vowels: [I, e, 3, a] the back unrounded vowel [a] and the back rounded vowels[ o , o, u] . Secondary front rounded oe, the back rounded o, the back unrounded a.

10. Principles of classification of English vowels, (usually accepted in Russian science). Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowels.

According to following principles:Stability of articulation.Position of the tonguePosition of the lips (natural rounded)The character of the vowel end.Length (short, long)

11. Stress. Strong and weak forms. Unstressed vocalism. Tone. Sentence stress and accent. Word stress and its types. Tap. Flap.Stress is a property of syllables which makes themstand out as more noticeable than others. There are dynamic (intensive articulation) (English, Ru) musical tone quantitative (longer). The strong form must be used, if word is stressed and at the end of the intonation group. The wear forms of words beginning with [h] (have). Unstressed vowels in English may either change their quality or remain unchanged (арт.а).Tone is an identifiable movement or level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive way. Tone forms the central part of intonation. Scientisfics distitinguish between stressed and accented syllables. Accent is indicated by stress and pitch combined. If a stress occers(происходит) without a down ward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented.

Word – stress constitute and distinctive.Recessive bendency results in placing yhe word stress on the initial syllable. (снижение)Rhytmic tendencyRetentive lendency (длительная)Semantic factor

TAP is a sound which resembles (сходит) [t] or [d], being made by a complete closure between the tongue and the alveolar region, but which is very brief. Flap is a consonant sound that is closely similar to the tap, it is usually voiced. The phonetic symbol for this sound .It is also heard in the English if native speakers of Indians as a relation of [r]

12. Syllable. Syllable structure. Syllabic consonants. Syllable boundaries. Graphic characteristics of the syllable. Syllabographs. Theories. Scale of Sonority.A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is heard to be more prominent than the others. Syllabic sounds are generally vowels (giphthongs) and sonorants. The structure of English spoken syllables can be summarized as follows:Minimally, a syllable consists of a vowel or a vowel-like sound , which acts as a nucleus, centre or peak.many syllable have one or more consonants preceding the nucleus. These make up the syllable onset (me,so) open syllables. many syllables have one or more consonants following the nucleus. These make up the syllable coda (am).many syllaables have both an oneset and a coda: cat, jump.Syllable constant is a constant which can stand along as a sylllable. They appear to arise as a consequence of weak vowel becoming lost. Syllable boundaries is one thing to be able to count the number of syllables in a word. English is full of cases where alternative analyses are possible.

Syllabographs is division into phonem, syllable and letter.

13. Phonology and phonetics. Distinctiveness and contrast. Sounds that do not contrast. Phonemes as categories. More instances of allophonic variation. Phonemic transcription. Phonological rules. Formalizing phonological rules. Expressing environments.Phonetics studies speech sounds in ways that are close to the speech stream, focusing on production, acoustics and perception. Phonology tends to be more abstract. There are quite a few ways in phonology of saying that two sounds a separate phonemes. Equivalently, we say that the English sounds [t] and [d] contrast with each other, that they are in conrast, or that they are phonamically distinct, or that the difference between them is distinctive. All of these terms are essentially equivalent. There are also many pairs of sounds that do not contrast. Here is a simple case from English, involwing the lenth of vowels. If you listen to a native speaker say the following pairs of words, you will find that the vowel phonem [ei] is quite a bit shorter in the second member of each pair: save [seiv] – made [meid]// safe [seif] – mate [meit] Phonologist hypothesize that sounds [ei] and [e’i] in the present case form an abstract phonological category, namely, the phonem [ei] sounds [ei]and [ei] are called the allophones.Whe a linguist records words as sequences of phonemes, the result is termed as phonemic transcription. Generalizations about the patterning of allophones can be started as phonological rules. Describe the pattering og [e’i] and [ei], one might write a rule like this: [ei] shortening. The phoneme [e’i] is realised as extra short when a voiceless consonant follows. Rules of phonology are language specific. The symbol slash / means “in the environment”. Square brackets in phonology essentially mean “end”. The symbol “+” and “-“ are used before feauture names to mean that a segment either has or does not have thу phonetic property that a feature disignates.

14. Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowels. Rounding. Height. Backness. Tense and lax vowels. Checked and unchecked vowels.Vowels is the class of sounds which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air. There are distinguish from other vowels..Shape of lips: unrounded- i/e , rounded u/o. Raise of the tounge: front – i/e, central – A, back – гAlso ther are close – i/u, mid – e/3, open – A. Rounding – is a term used to decribe lip configuration in speech sounds [pot] [put].Heigh is another modification one can make to shape of the vocal tract is to make the passage through the mouth wider or narrower. Changes is bord on the height of the tongue body. High, mid or low (close, mid, open) Backness is the third primary way of changing the vocal tract shape is to place the body of the tongue towards the front part of the mouth or towards the back (lax sound with little articulatory energy)

15. Articulatory and physiological aspect of speech sounds. Mechanisms of speechHman speech is a result of a highly compicated series of events. The formation of the concent takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of speaker. This stage may be called psychological. Humans brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in production a particular pattern of speech sounds. This stage may be called psysiological. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air streas thus producing sound waves. This stage may be called phisical or acoustic.Mechanisms of speechThe power mechanism consist of the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, thre trachea, the glottis, the larynx.The vibrator mechanism consist of the vocal cords.Th resonator mechanism consist of the pharinx, the mouth cavity, the nosal cavity.The obstructor mechanism consists of the tounge, the lips, the teeth, the soft palate, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge.

16. Phonetic dictionaries. (whose pronunciation is represented, how is pronunciation chosen). Different types of pronunciation. RP (received pronunciation).One of the best English pronouncering dictionaries was first published in 1917. It is the greatist work of the British phoneticians Daniel Jones. It has been in use for over 80 years. It provides much essential information that is not available in a general dictionary: 1) such as the pronunciation of proper names; 2) pronunciation of all inflected forms of each word: 3) variant pronunciations than is usual in a general dictionary. A pronunciation model is carefully chosen and defined accent of a language. Received pronunciation is a kind of standart (is social standart within Britain), having its base in the educated pronunciation of London and the Home countries, being characteristic by the 19 century of upper class speech throughout the country, the model is used for British English is what is referred to as BBS English. Chose depends on a wide range of factors: degree of formality, speed,speaker’s perception of the cistner. In the real life, speakers tend to articulate most carefully when listners have difficulties in recognising the words the hear. In general a pronunsiation typical of a more casual, in formal style of speaking is given for common words, and more carefull for uncommon.