4.7. The valency of affixes & stems

The possibility of a stem to take an affix depends on phono-morphological, morphological, semantic factors. -ance / -ence occurs only after b, t, d, dz, v, l, r, m, n: disturbance, insistence, independence, not after s / z: condensation, organisation.

Adj-forming suffixes (-ed (barbed), -en (golden), -ful (careful), -less (careless), -ly (soldierly), -like (childlike), -y (hearty)) are mostly attached to N-stems. The highly productive suffix -able is combined with N-stems & V-stems (clubbable, bearable), especially frequent in un- + verbal stem + -able (unbearable), sometimes attached to phrases (unbrushoffable, ungetatable) → composition + affixation = compound-derivatives.

The valency of stems. N-stems are followed by the N-forming suffixes: -age (bondage), -dom (serfdom), -eer / -ier (profiteer, collier), -ess (waitress), -ful (spoonful), -hood (childhood), -ian (physician), -ics (linguistics), -ie / -y (daddy), -ing (flooring), -ism (heroism), -ist (violinist), -let (cloudlet), -ship (friendship)-; by the adj-forming suffixes: -al /-ial (doctoral), -an (African), -ary (revolutionary), -ed (wooded), -ful (hopeful), -ic /-ical (historic, historical), -ish (childish), -like (businesslike), -ly (friendly), -ous / -ious / -eous (spacious), -some (handsome), -y (cloudy), V-forming suffixes: -ate (aerate), -en (hearten), -fy / -ify (speechify), -ise (sympathise).

V-stems are almost equal to N-stems in valency, combine with N-forming suffixes: -age (breakage), -al (betrayal), -ance / -ence (guidance, reference), -ant / -ent (assistant, student), -ee (employee), -er / -/ (painter, editor), -ing (uprising), -ion / -tion / -ation (action, information), -ment (government), adj-forming suffixes: -able / -ible (agreeable, comprehensible), -ive / -sive / -tive (talkative), -some (meddlesome).

Adj-stems furnish a shorter list: -dom (freedom), -ism (realism), -ity / -ty (reality, cruelty), -ness (brightness), -ish (reddish), -ly (firmly), -ate (differentiate), -en (sharpen), -fy / -ify (solidify).

The meaning of the derivative depends not only on its morphemes but also on combinations of stems & affixes that can be contrasted with it. The difference between -ity & -ism: formality :: formalism :: humanity :: humanism; reality :: realism. Ns in -ity – the quality of being what the corresponding Adj describes / an instance of this quality. The resulting Ns are countable. Ns in -ism – a disposition to what the Adj describes / a corresponding type of ideology; uncountable, belong to a different LG class.

The similarity an opposition is based on the sameness of suffix. Boyish, waspish, but not enemish, spyish. The names of nationalities: British, Irish, Spanish. N-stems + -ish → Adj ‘having the nature of’ with a derogatory colouring: bookish, churlish, monkeyish, sheepish, swinish. Childish :: childlike, a childish petulance, a childlike simplicity. Womanly ‘having the qualities befitting a woman’ (womanly grace) :: womanish ‘effeminate’(womanish fears).

Adj-stems + -ish → a moderate degree of the quality named: greenish ‘somewhat green’. With Num-stems: eightyish, fortyish ‘round about 80’, ‘round about 40’.

In colloquial speech Ws denoting the time of the day + -ish: four-o’clockish / fourish ‘round about 4 o’clock’.

The study of correlations of derivatives & stems → the meaning of the affix. -ness forms Ns of quality from adj-stems: good :: goodness; kind :: kindness; lonely :: loneliness; ready :: readiness; righteous :: righteousness.

-ion (allomorphs –sion, -tion) & -/ are N-forming suffixes combined with V-stems. The opposition between → 2 subclasses of Ns: abstract Ns, agent Ns: accumulation :: accumulator; action :: actor; election :: elector; liberation :: liberator. The abstract N: action, state / result of action: cultivation – the process of cultivating, the state of being cultivated. A cultivator is ‘a person who cultivates^’, ‘a machine for breaking up ground’. 2 different subclasses: animate beings, inanimate things. They differ semantically & grammatically: animate Ns ↔ he / she; inanimate Ns ↔ it.