21. Stylistic syntax (syntagmatic and paradigmatic syntax)

Within the language-as-a-system there establish themselves certain [definite types of relations between words, word-combinations, sentences I and also between larger spans of utterances. The branch of language science which studies the types of relations between the units enumerated is called syntax.

The onomasiological approach in stylistic syntax is aimed at finding out what sublanguage is involved and what expressive value a syntactical unit has, treated in abstraction from its environment. Paradigmatic syntax deals with the syntactical paradigm, i.e. a set of parallel (more or less equivalent, interchangeable, though formally different) syntactical structures and their comparative stylistic significance. A sentence is a sequence of relatively independent lexical and phrasal units, the sentence structure is changeable. Its constituents, length, word order, as well as communicative type are variable. Neutral and specific. Any kind of deviation from the requirements are stylistically relevant. 1 quantitative char-cs a) absence of elements which are obligatory in a neutral construction (ellipsis) b) excess of non-essential elements (repetition, tautology, polysyndeton) 2 distribution of elements – inversion 3 stylistic effects of shifts in syntactic meaning.

Paradigmatic syntax deals with the structure of the sentence, the number and position of its constituents, compared with other choices. Syntagmatic syntax deals mainly with a chain of sentences, the sequence of sentences constituting a text. Sentences in sequence often show no regular alternation of form. Such syntax is stylistically neutral. Often, however, certain regular alternations or reiterations are conspicuous and stylistically relevant. For example, regular alternation of interrogative and declarative sentences characterizes the text as a dialogue or as an inner monologue.

Another example, adjacent sentences may be identical or analogous by their syntactical structures – parallelism.

24. Hyperbole, irony, litotes

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exagge­ration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum. Like many SDs, hyperbole may lose its quality as a SD through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language as a system, reproduced in speech in its unaltered from. Here there are some examples:

e. g. A thousand pardons, scared to death, immensely obliged.

Hyperbole differs from mere exaggeration in that it is intended to be understood as an exaggeration. Both the writer and the reader (or the speaker and the listener) are fully aware of the deliberateness of the exaggeration. The use of hyperbole shows the overflow of emotions in the speaker, and the listener is carried away by the flood.

Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance. This is achieved, as in case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.

Hyperbole is a stylistic device based on the interaction between the logical and emotive meanings of a word. It is a deliberate over statement. Very often the hyperbole is used to create humorous or satirical effect and so to express the author’s attitude towards the described.

A kind of hyperbole with the same inner mechanism of the device is presented by understatement which is, too, based on the interaction between the logical and emotive meaning and shows the overflow of the speaker’s sentiments.

The specific feature of this kind of hyperbole is the direction of the exaggeration: hyperbole enlarges, while understatement deliberately diminishes the described object, phenomenon, etc.

e.g. “The little woman, for she was of pocket size, crossed her hands solemnly on her middle.”

Irony is a sd based on the simultaneous reali­zation of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with special melody design. Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect. It rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. A word used ironically may sometimes express very subtle, almost im­perceptible nuances of meaning. Generally, irony is used to convey a negative meaning.

Litotes - - is a sd consisting of a peculiar use of nega­tive constructions, is a deliberate understatement used to produce a stylistic effect. It is not a pure negation but a negation that includes information. A variant of litotes is a construction with 2 negations (not unlike, not displeased). Usually litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not) the other - through a word with negative meaning. According to general logical mathematical principles, 2 negatives make a positive. This device is used in different styles of speech excluding scientific prose and official style.

Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling.

The stylistic device of litotes is used to weaken the positive characteristics of a thing or phenomenon.