10. Rhythm and rhyme.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are usually placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are generally placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

The full rhyme (presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in the stressed syllable) and incomplete rhyme (vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but consonant may be different: flesh-fresh-press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonant and disparity in vowel: worth-forth). There are also compound or broken rhymes . The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like one word. Eye-rhymes – letters but not sounds are identical (love-prove)

According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza, certain models are distinguished:couplets – when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. Aa triple rhymes – aaa cross rhymes – abab framing or ring rhymes - abba

Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. The most general definition of it is following: Rhythm – is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements of features, at beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features. Webster’s New World Dictionary.

Rhythm is the main factor which brings order into the utterance. The influence of the rhythm on the semantic aspect of the utterance is now being carefully investigated and it becomes apparent that orderly phonetic arrangement of the utterance calls forth orderly syntactical structures which, in their turn, suggest an orderly segmenting of the sense-group. Rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low; and other contrasting segments of speech. Academician Zirmunsky suggest that the concept of rhythm should be distinguished from that of metre.

Metre is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. The metre is an ideal phenomenon characterized by its strict regularity, consistency and unchangability, whereas rhythm is flexible and sometimes an effort is required to perceive that. The most observable patterns are based on the use of stylistic syntactical devices such as enumeration, repetition, parallel construction and chiasmus.

A foot is the smallest recurrent segment of the line consisting of one stressed syllable and or 2 unstressed ones. Since a foot consists of only 3 or 2 syllables it is clear that there cannot be many possible combinations of stressed and unstressed syllable. In fact, there are only 5 – 2 disyllabic varieties of feet (Trochee (1^st syl is stressed), iambus (2^nd syl is stressed)) and 3 trisyllabic ones (dactyl1, amphibrach2, anapaest3).

The metrical characteristics of a verse line depends on a number of foot in it. A line may consist of 1,2,3,4 or more feet. And there are special terms which mark the length of the line (monometer, dimeter, trimester, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, septameter, octameter). The number of feet corresponds to the number of stresses.

There are different types of verse and their structure is different.

Accented verse is a type of verse in which only the number of stresses in a line is taken into account. The number of syllables and the type of the feet is irrelevant.

There are some poets who reject both metrical patterns and rhyme. Galperin: this type of poetry can hardly be called verse. It has become poetic prose.

Male rhymes – stress on the last syllable/ Female rhymes – stress on 1^st syl

Triple rhymes – 3-syl words with a stress on the 1^st syl.

Inner rhyme – words rhyme inside the line

Rhymeless verse is blank verse.

Stanza – 2 or more lines make a stanza which is also called strophe. The most typical types of stanzas are: the ballad stanza consists of 4 lines (2^nd and 4^th lines rhyme), the heroic couplet (2 rhymed lines), Spenserian stanza (9 lines ababbcbcc), ottava rima (8 lines, each line is a iambic pentameter), sonnet (14lines) macaronic verses (dif.lang)

9. The components of the lexical meaning

The semantic structure of a word consists of grammatical and lexical meanings. Lex.meaning can be further subdivided into denotative and connotative. Connotative meaning is only connected with extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication and the participants of communication. Connotative meaning consists of four components: 1) emotive; 2) evaluative; 3) expressive; 4) stylistic. A word is always characterised by its denotative meaning but not necessarily by connotation. The four components may be all present at once, or in different combinations or they may not be found in the word at all. 1. Emotive connotations express various feelings or emotions. Emotions differ from feelings. Emotions like joy, disappointment, pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are more short-lived. Feelings imply a more stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride, dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning may be occasional or usual (i.e. inherent and adherent). It is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations from words, describing or naming emotions and feelings like anger or fear, because the latter are a special vocabulary subgroup whose denotative meanings are emotions. They do not connote the speaker's state of mind or his emotional attitude to the subject of speech. On the other hand an apparently neutral word like big will become charged with emotive connotation in a mother's proud description of her baby: He is a BIG boy already!

2. The evaluative component charges the word with negative, positive,

ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaker's attitude

in relation to the object of speech. Very often this component is a part

of the denotative meaning, which comes to the fore in a specific

context.

3. Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the message. Many scholars hold that emotive and expressive components cannot be distinguished but Prof. I.A.Arnold maintains that emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but not vice versa. 4. Finally there is stylistic connotation. A word possesses stylistic connotation if it belongs to a certain functional style or a specific layer of vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang, jargon, etc). Stylistic connotation is usually immediately recognizable.(I. V. Arnold, Z. Y. Turayeva).

Galperin operates 3 types of lexical meanings that are stylistically relevant (logical, emotive, nominal). He describes the stylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these types of lexical meanings.

Screbnev maintains that connotations only show to what part of the national language a word belongs to (whether it is one of the sublanguages or neutral bulk). He only speaks about the stylistic component of connotational meaning.

Galperin

• LogicaI meaning is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or'object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. This meaning is also synonymously called referential meaning or direct meaning.

- The potentiality of words can also be noted in regard to emotive meaning. Emotive meaning also materializes a concept in the word, but, unlike logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly ""to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emo­tions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions as such. Therefore the emotive meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them. Many words acquire an emotive meaning only in a definite context. In that case we say that the word has a contextual connotative meaning.

• There are words which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. In other words, these units of the language serve the purpose of Singling out one definite and singular object but of a whole class of similar objects. These are proper names.

If we compare logical and nominal meanings – nominal meaning is always secondary to the logical meaning.