Прикметник

Прикметник (the adjective) – частина мови, що виражає ознаку, якість або властивість предметів і відповідає на питання what? (який?).

Прикметники в англійській мові не змінюються за родами, числами, відмінками.

За будовою та походженням прикметники поділяються на прості, що мають у складі лише корінь (good, cold, young), похідні, які утворюються додаванням до кореня суфіксів та префіксів (impossible, international, beautiful), та складені (well-organized, time-consuming).

Основні суфікси похідних прикметників:

-able (ible) -ant (ent) -ary -en -ic (al) -ish -ive -ful -less -ly -ous -some -y

changeable, sensible pleasant, different revolutionary wooden historic (al) blackish progressive useful useless friendly famous tiresome frosty

За значенням прикметники поділяються на: відносні (a brick wall, a wooden table) та якісні (cold, beautiful).

Більшість якісних прикметників можуть мати вищій і най­вищій ступені порівняння та можуть сполучатися з прислівником (very, quite, so, too, rather та ін.).

Ступені порівняння прикметників

Існує три способи утворення вищого і найвищого ступенів по­рівняння (degrees of comparison): 1) за допомогою суфіксів -er, -est; 2) за допомогою слів more, the most; 3) з утворенням нових слів.

Всі односкладові та двоскладові прикметники, що закінчу­ються на -er, -le, -y, -ow, утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою суфіксів (перша група прикладів у таблиці 2).

Якщо прикметник закінчується на -у з попереднім голосним, -у змінюється на -і; якщо односкладовий прикметник закінчується на приголосний, перед яким стоїть короткий голосний, то кінцевий приголосний на письмі подвоюється; “німе” -е перед суфіксами зникає.

Таблиця 2

Ступені порівняння прикметників

Початкова форма	Вищий ступінь	Найвищий ступінь
big hot wide young clever simple busy narrow	bigger hotter wider younger cleverer simpler busier narrower	the biggest the hottest the widest the youngest the cleverest the simplest the busiest the narrowest
important beautiful interesting	more important more beautiful more interesting	the most important the most beautiful the most interesting
good bad little many much far	better worse less more farther further	the best the worst the least the most the farthest the furthest

Багатоскладові і двоскладові прикметники, крім тих дво­складових, які закінчуються на -er, -le, -y, -ow, ступені порівняння утворюють за допомогою слів more, the most (друга частина таблиці 2).

Якщо вказується на зменшення ступеня, вживаються слова less, the least: difficult (важкий), less difficult (менш важкий), the least difficult (найменш важкий).

Деякі прикметники утворюють ступені порівняння від іншого кореня (третя частина таблиці 2).

Від прикметника little, що вживається у значенні “маленький” (a little girl), ступені порівняння утворюються так: a smaller girl, the smallest girl. Прикметник old має ступені порівняння older, the oldest, коли йдеться про членів родини.

Під час порівняння якостей двох предметів після прикмет­ника у вищому ступені вживається сполучник than (ніж): In winter days are shorter than nights.

Щоб уникнути повторення назви одного й того ж предмета, вживається слово one: This room is larger than that one.

Для порівняння двох предметів однакової чи неоднакової якості вживається прикметник у звичайній формі, який ставиться між подвійним сполучником as…as, not as…as:

This book is as interesting as that one.

This book is not as interesting as that one.

Exercise 1. Give Comparative and Superlative degree of qualitative adjectives.

Hot, long, short, clever, silly, great, red, black, white, thin, thick, fat, nice, warm, cold, merry, small, tall, high, weak, strong, heavy, light, green, dry, clean, dirty, wide, deep, brave, old, far, good, bad, happy, beautiful, interesting, busy.

Exercise 2. Select correct degree form for the adjectives in parentheses.

1. (large) color display are the main differences from (early) A 330/A340 cockpits.

2. The A330/A340 has six 6.25 x 6.25 – inches color displays, and two monochrome text-only (small) displays for the flight management system.

3. The two extra screens on the A380 take the place of the FMS displays, making them (large) and (comfortable), in color and capable of graphical as well as text instruction.

4. The hand rests make the controls (easy) to use in turbulence.

5. This book is (interesting) of all I have read this year.

Exercise 3. Derive as many adjective as you can from the given words:

Red, use, sense, cost, chronology, industry, influence, energy, electricity, quantity, define, power, difference.

Exercise 4. Translate into English.

1. Літак Аеробус А380 більший за його попередника Аеробуса А330.

2. Дисплей Аеробуса А340 не такий зручний, як в Аеробуса А380.

3. Тихий океан небезпечніший за Атлантичний.

4. Цей комп’ютер трохи дешевший, ніж попередній.

5. Індія не така велика, як Китай.

Комунікативна практика

Naming

Exercise 1. Discuss in pairs the following questions:

1. Do you like your name?

2. Does it go with your personality?

3. Do you know why your parents gave you that name?

4. Do you know what it means?

Exercise 2. Read 10 reasons for naming a baby. Choose 3 reasons for naming your future child.

1. It sounds good.

2. It’s a famous person’s name.

3. It came from a name book.

4. It’s a traditional family name.

5. It creates a strong image.

6. It reminds of a close friend.

7. It suits the baby’s appearance.

8. It’s the name of a parent or a grandparent.

9. It has religious associations.

10. It refers to the time of firth.

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences using the given words:

go with, image, associations, makes, reminds, at alic, sound, suggests, suits.

1. The name Elvis always _______ me of a rock star.

2. Her name is Flora. That ________ a flower to me.

3. She is called India, so it ________ me think of the country.

4. My name doesn’t _______ my personality at all. It means “calm” – and I am not!

5. I think a name like Augustus created a very strong _______.

6. His first name is Taras, so it _______ like he could be a Ukrainian.

7. She is a lively person and her name means “full of life”, so it really_______ her.

8. The name Lora has all kinds of happy ________ for me, because that was my grandmother’s name.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1.Fill in the gaps with the prepositions from the box.

in, on, near, by, of, from, at, to, for

1. Wings has a skeleton __ lengthwise spars and crosswise ribs.

2. Cantilever wings are completely supported __ the fuselage.

3. The root is the part of the wing attached __ the fuselage.

4. The top of the wing thickens __ the leading edge and then sloped back __ the knifelike trailing edge.

5. High-wing planes the wing __ the top.

6. Most airplanes have straight-wing design because it performs well __ both high and low speeds.

7. Movable control surfaces help balance the plane __ flight.

8. The ailerons are used to make the plane bank __ the right or the left during a turn.

9. A spoiler is a plate __ the upper part of each side of the wing.

Exercise 2.Answer the following questions in written form:

1. What are the common location and shape of the wing?

2. What is a skeleton of the wing?

Exercise 3. Put the adjectives in brackets into the correct degree form.

1. The (tall) trees in the world grow in California.

2. Chinese is (difficult) than English.

3. The Arctic Ocean is (cold) than the Indian Ocean.

4. My sister speaks English (bad) than I do.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Remember the vocabulary and read the text

The fuselage of an airplane extends from the nose to the tail. Most airplane bodies have a tube like shape and are covered with a lightweight aluminum skin. The engine of most single-engine planes is located in the front part of the fuselage. However, some jet planes have one or all of their engines at the rear of the fuselage.

The fuselage houses the controls, crew, passengers, and cargo. In the smallest airplanes, the fuselage contains a cockpit with room for only the pilot or for the pilot and one passenger. In most planes that carry from two to six persons, the pilot and passengers sit together in a single cabin. Most larger planes have a cockpit for the crew and a cabin for the passengers and cargo. In the largest planes, such as the Boeing 747 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-8, the cabin has separate decks (floors) for the passengers and cargo.

cockpit controls crew

кабіна пілота керма екіпаж

deck front/rear (part) skin

палуба передня/задня (частини) обшивка (літака)

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1. What is the common shape of the airplane bodies?

2. What is the airplane body covered with?

3. Where can the engines be located?

4. What is there inside the fuselage?

5. What planes can you name which have separate desks for the passengers and cargo?

Exercise 3. The following sentences contain wrong information. Make them negative and then correct the incorrect information.

Example: The fuselage extends from the nose to the landing gear. – The fuselage doesn't extend from the nose to the landing gear. The fuselage extends from the nose to the tail.

1. Most airplanes’ bodies are covered with lightweight iron skin.

2. The engine of most single-engine planes is located in the rear part of the fuselage.

3. Some jet planes have one or all their engines at the front of the fuselage.

4. In the smallest airplanes, the fuselage contains a cockpit with a room for pilot and some tons of cargo.

5. Most planes carry from two to six passengers.

Граматичні відомості

Займенник (the pronoun) – це частина мови, яка вказує на предмети, ознаки, числа, не називаючи їх.

В англійській мові займенники поділяються на особові, присвійні, зворотні та підсилювальні, вказівні, питальні, відносні (з’єднувальні) та неозначені.

Займенники можуть виконувати в реченні функції:

підмета – I am a teacher;

іменної частини складеного іменного присудка – It is I (але у розмові: It’s me);

додатка – Show me the book;

означення – This is my book.

Займенники, що виконують функції підмета, іменної частини складеного іменного присудка та додатка співвідносяться з іменни­ком, а займенники-означення – з прикметником. Як уже відзнача­лось вище, використання займенників у ролі означення, як правило, виключає необхідність вживання артикля (My house is big).

1. Особові, присвійні, зворотні та підсилювальні займенники.

Особові займенники завжди виконують роль іменника. Вони мають форми двох відмінків – називного та об’єктного (табл. 3).

Займенник у називному відмінку виконує роль підмета або іменної частини складеного іменного присудка:

He and I work here. It is I (he, she, we).

У розмовній мові також: It’s me (him, her, us).

Особові займенники в об’єктному відмінку виконують роль додатка та відповідають знахідному відмінкові української мови:

We met them at university.

Присвійні займенники відповідають на питання чий? Якщо такий займенник стоїть перед іменником, він виконує роль визначника і співвідноситься з прикметником. Якщо займенник використовується самостійно, без наступного іменника, він співвідноситься з іменником (табл. 4).

Таблиця 3

Особові займенники

Особа	Називний відмінок				Об’єктний відмінок
	Однина		Множина		Однина		Множина
1-а	I	я	we	ми	me	мене, мені	us	нас, нам
2-а	--	--	you	ви	--	--	you	вас, вам
3-я	he she it	він вона він, вона, воно*	they	вони	him her it	його, йому її, їй його, йому, її, їй*	them	їх, їм

^*Середній рiд англійської мови для неживих предметів і тварин може відповідати також чоловічому або жіночому роду української мови.

Таблиця 4

Присвійні займенники

Особа	Однина			Множина
	Форма займенника			Форма займенника
	Прикмет- ник	Імен- ник		Прикмет- ник	Імен- ник
1-а	my	mine	мій, моя, моє, мої	our	ours	наш, наша наше, наші
2-а	--	--		your	yours	ваш, ваша ваше, ваші
3-я	his her it	his hers its	його її його, її*	their	theirs	їх

^*Дивись примітку до таблиці 3.

Декілька прикладів:

I give him my book. We give them our book. They give her their books. He gives me his book. She gives you her book.

This book is mine. This book is ours. These books are theirs. This book is his. This book is hers.

Зворотні займенники утворюються додаванням закінчення -self (в однині), або -selves (у множині):

myself	yourself	himself, herself, itself	oneself
ourselves	yourselves	themselves

На відміну від особових займенників вони мають окрему форму для другої особи в однині – yourself. У реченні вони стоять після дієслова і виконують функцію додатка. Зворотні займенники в залежності від контексту перекладаються українською мовою двома способами і можуть відповідати:

а) частці -ся:

Don’t hurt yourself. – Не забийтеся.

б) зворотному займеннику себе (собі, собою):

I see myself in the mirror. – Я бачу себе у дзеркалі.

He bought himself a new book. – Він купив собі нову книгу.

Зворотні займенники вживаються також для підсилення зна­чення іменника або особового займенника і зазвичай переклада­ються словом сам (сама, само/саме, самі). Вони вживаються або після слова, значення якого підсилюють, або в кінці речення:

Peter saw it himself. (He himself saw it.) – Петро сам це бачив.

Why don't they just do it themselves? – Чому ж вони самі це не зроблять?

2. Вказівні займенники this (цей, ця, це) та that (той, та, те) мають також форми множини – these (ці) та those (ті):

This is my book and those are yours.

До вказівних займенників також належать the same (той самий, ті самі) та such (такий, такі):

Thanks for your help – I'll do the same for you one day.

His victory had been predicted and such indeed was the result.

В якості вказівного займенника також часто вживають займенник it (це):

Who is there? – It’s me.

3. До питальних займенників належать: who? (хто?), з об’єктним відмінком whom? (кого, кому?), what? (що, який?), whose? (чий?), which? (котрий, який?), наприклад:

Who came yesterday?

What language do you speak?

Whose book is this?

Who (whom) did you meet last week?

Which dress will you buy: blue or yellow?

4. Всі згадані питальні займенники, а також займенник that (кот­рий, який) можуть використовуватись в функції відносних (з’єднуваль­них) займенників для з’єднання головного речення з підрядним:

I know who wrote this novel.

I know the man who wrote this novel.

I know whom you spoke to.

I know that this book is on sale.

5. Неозначені, кількісні та заперечні займенники в граматиці англійської мови розглядаються як один вид – indefinite pronouns. Вони поділяються на прості і складені. До простих належать: all, each, some, other, another, no та інші. Складені займенники утворюються від простих додаванням до деяких з них закінчень -body, -one, -thing (somebody, anybody, nobody, і т. д.).

У стверджувальних реченнях вживаються some (деякий, який-небудь, декілька, деякі) та похідні somebody (хто-небудь), someone (хтось), something (що-небудь, щось):

Give me some pencils.

Somebody (someone) knocked at the door.

Something has happened.

У питальних реченнях вживаються any (який-небудь, декілька, будь-який, хто-небудь) та похідні anybody (хтось), anyone (що-небудь), anything (щось):

Will you give me any pencil?

Did anybody (anyone) knock at the door?

Has anything happened?

Some, а не any вживається у питаннях, коли щось ввічливо просять або пропонують:

Won’t you have some coffee?

Could I have some water?

Any та похідні від нього вживаються як у стверджувальних, так і в питальних реченнях перед обчислюваними іменниками в однині та необчислюваними іменниками у значенні будь-який:

You can find this information in any reference book.

У заперечних реченнях вживаються no (ніякий) та похідні nobody, no-one (ніхто), nothing (ніщо), а також not…any (ніякий, жодний), not...anybody/anyone (ніхто), not...anything (ніщо):

I have no pencils.

Nobody (no one) was there.

Nothing has happened

He does not know any English song.

They did not know anybody (anyone).

She does not know anything.

Коли займенник some вживається з необчислюваними імен­никами, він часто не перекладається: Give me some tea. – Дайте мені чаю (мається на увазі не весь чай, а обмежена, певна кількість).

В англійському реченні може бути лише одне заперечення, тобто вживається один заперечний займенник. Наприклад, речення “Ніхто ніколи його не бачив” перекладається: “Anybody never saw him” або “Nobody ever saw him.”

Займенники many/few (багато/декілька, небагато) використо­вують з обчислюваними іменниками, з необчислюваними іменни­ками вживають much/little:

Many (few) students attended the lecture yesterday.

Much water has followed under the bridge since that time.

Little has been said about it.

До неозначених займенників відносять також all (всі), both (обоє, обидва), either/neither (один/жодний з двох), each (кожний з обмеженої кількості), every (будь-який), other/others (інший/інші), another (ще один, інший) та one/ones.

Займенник one безпосередньо українською мовою не пере­кладається та вживається для позначення невизначеної особи або для того, щоб запобігти повторенню обчислюваного іменника:

One should be careful when crossing the street. – Слід бути обережним, перетинаючи вулицю.

This lesson is more interesting than the one we had last time.

Exercise 1. Insert some, any, no, if needed.

1. There is . . . petrol in the tank.

2. Is there . . . snow in the street this morning?

3. My mother likes . . . music.

4. Are there . . . mechanics here?

5. There are . . . diagrams in the new book.

Exercise 2. Insert something, anything, nothing or everything, if needed.

1. . . . is all right, the patient is much better today.

2. Is there . . . wrong with the fillets at the wing roots?

3. I could see . . . : it was quite dark.

4. I didn’t buy . . . .

5. My new eyeglasses are very good, so I can see . . . now.

Exercise 3. Translate into English.

Багато літаків, мало пального, багато води, багато механіків, багато крейди, багато років, мало часу, кілька планерів, кілька днів, мало світла, мало вікон, кілька машин, мало роботи, мало повітря.

Комунікативна практика

Exercise 1. Read (or listen to) this conversation. It is from an oral examination.

Teacher (T): Describe, please, the location of the central body of the airplane.

Student (S): I’m sorry. Could you please repeat?

T: Okay. Please tell me what the location of the airplane central body is.

S: I don't understand "location of the central body".

T: Where does the fuselage extend from and to?

S: Oh, do you mean the fuselage and where it is?

T: Yes, describe, please, the location of the fuselage.

S: Well, the fuselage of the airplane is the central body and it extends from the nose to the tail of the machine.

T: What is the common shape of the most airplane bodies?

S: Let me think ... shape ... shape.... Yes, the most airplanes’ bodies have a tube like shape or streamline shape.

T: All right. Where ...

Does the Student answer the teacher's questions immediately?

What words, phrases does he use to get more time?

Exercise 2. Discuses the following questions.

1. Do exam results really show your true ability?

2. How important are qualifications?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Remember the vocabulary and read the text.

The tail assembly, or empennage, is the rear part of an airplane. It helps guide the plane and keep it balanced in flight. Most tail assemblies consist of a vertical fin and rudder and a horizontal stabilizer and elevator. The fin stands upright and does not move. It keeps the rear of the plane from swinging to the left or right. The rudder is hinged to the rear edge of the fin and can be moved from side to side. It helps control the plane during a turn.

The stabilizer is like a small wing in the tail. It prevents the tail from bobbing up and down and so keep the plane flying in a steady hori­zontal direction. The elevator is hinged to the rear edge of the stabilizer. A pilot moves the elevator up or down to raise or lower the plane's nose.

Most airplanes built today have a stabilator instead of a stabilizer and an elevator. A stabilator is a single solid unit that moves up or down. Almost all planes have a trim tab on the elevator or stabilator, and some have a trim tab on the rudder.

Tail assemblies have various shapes and arrangements. On some planes, the fin and rudder stand up-right at a right angle to the fuselage. On other planes, they slant back at a sharp angle. Most jet planes with engines at the rear of the fuselage have their horizontal stabilizer and elevator mounted across or near the top of a tall vertical fin and rudder. Some light airplanes have a V-assembly. This type of tail consists of two fins in a V-shape with an elevator and a trim tab attached to each fin.

right angle sharp angle

прямий кут гострий кут

slant back trim tab

відхилятися назад тример

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the words to name rear part of an airplane?

2. What does the tail assembly help to do?

3. What do most tail assemblies consist of?

4. What is the fin?

1. What is the stabilator?

2. What is the rudder?

Exercise 3. Put much, many, little, few, a little or few.

1. He had . . . English books at home, so he had to go to the library for more books.

2. She gave him . . . water to wash his hands and face.

3. I’ll like to say . . . words about my journey on Airbus.

4. After the flight everybody felt . . . tired.

5. Let’s stay here . . .longer: it is such a nice place.

6. There were . . . new words in the text, and Peter spent . . . time learning them.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Learn the vocabulary and read the text.

The landing gear, or undercarriage, consists of the wheels or floats upon which an airplane moves on the ground or water. The landing gear also supports the weight of a plane on the ground or water.

Land planes have two main types of landing gear. In some light planes, it consists of two wheels under the front part of the fuselage and a third wheel under the tail. Almost all other airplanes have a tricycle landing gear. On light planes, it consists of a wheel under the nose and two wheels under the mid fuselage or one under each wing. Many large airplanes have a tricycle landing gear made up of a main gear with as many as 12 wheels under each of the wings and a nose gear with one or two wheels.

Landing gear may be fixed or retractable. A fixed landing gear remains extended in flight, which slows down the speed of the plane. Most high-speed planes retract (bring up) the wheels into either the wings or the fuselage after take-off.

The watertight body of a flying boat serves as both landing gear and cab. Floats serve as the landing gear for floatplanes. Amphibians, which can operate from land of water, have retractable wheels in their floats or hull.

amphibian floatplane float boat

амфібія гідроплан поплавок човник

hull tricycle retract wheel

поплавок, корпус триколісний забирати, втягувати колесо

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What does the landing gear consist of?

2. What function does landing gear perform?

3. What is a tricycle landing gear?

4. What is the difference between fixed and retractable landing gear?

Exercise 3. Look at the table. Read the information given in boxes. Now read the second paragraph of the text and add missed information to fill in all the boxes.

		Land plane’s landing gear
Landing gear with a tail wheel
Two wheels under the front part of the fuselage						A nose gear with one or two wheels

Exercise 4. Each sentence contains wrong information. Work in groups of 3 to make up short dialogues. Follow the example. Perform roles in turn.

Example: Land plane's undercarriage consists of floats.

Student A: Land plane's undercarriage consists of floats.

Student B: Does it? No. It doesn't consist of floats.

Student C: Land plane's undercarriage consists of wheels.

1. An amphibian moves upon the wheels on the water.

2. The fuselage supports the weight of a plane on the ground.

3. Land planes have five main types of landing gear.

4. In some high-speed planes the landing gear consists of two wheels under the front part of the fuselage and a third wheel under the tail.

5. A fixed landing gear increases the speed of the plane.

6. Most high-speed planes retract the wheels into nacelles.

Граматичні відомості

Числівник (the numeral) – частина мови, що виражає кількість або порядок предметів.

Числівники поділяються на кількісні й порядкові.

Кількісні числівники (cardinal numerals) означають кількість предметів і відповідають на питання how many? (скільки?).

Порядкові числівники (ordinal numerals) означають порядок при лічбі і відповідають на питання which? (котрий?).

Кількісні числівники від 1 до 12 мають такі назви:

1 2 3

one two three

4 5 6

four five six

7 8 9

seven eight nine

10 11 12

ten eleven twelve

Числівники від 13 до 19 утворюються від відповідних чисел від 3 по 9 додаванням суфікса -teen, наприклад, six – sixteen, при цьому числівники three та five трохи змінюються: three – thirteen, five – fifteen. Числівники, що позначують десятки – від 20 до 90 утворюються за допомогою суфікса -ty, наприклад, six – sixty, при цьому числа від 2 до 5 змінюються: two – twenty, three – thirty, four – forty, five – fifty. Назви інших числівників утворюються, як і в українській мові, з рахуванням розрядів, беручи до уваги такі назви десяткових розрядів: 100 – a (one) hundred, 1,000 a (one) – thousand, 1,000,000 – a (one) million, 1,000,000,000 – a (one) milliard (у США – billion). При цьому розрядні числівники hundred, thousand, million і так далі не набувають закінчення -s, притаманне множині, коли перед ними стоїть числівник one, two тощо:

2,098,345,001 – two billion ninety eight million three hundred (and) forty five thousand (and) one.

Як показано у прикладах, розряди прийнято відокремлювати комою.

Числівники hundred, thousand, million можуть вживатися із закінченням -s у множині, коли вони виражають невизначену кіль­кість сотень тисяч мільйонів. У цьому випадку вони перетворю­ються в іменники і після них вживається іменник з прийменником of: hundreds of letters, thousands of kilometers, million of roses.

Порядкові числівники крім first, second, third, утворюються за допомогою суфіксів -th, -eth, які додаються до кількісних числівників: four – fourth, fifteen – fifteenth, twenty – twentieth.

Приклади: the ninetieth, the hundredth ,the one hundred and first, the one hundred and tenth, the two hundred and thirty fifth, the thousandth, the five thousand two hundred and fiftieth, the three hundred and ninety seven thousandth.

При утворенні порядкових числівників fifth, twelfth буква v у кількісних числівників fifth, twelfth змінюється на f, а буква е випускається.

У числівнику eight випускається буква t: eight – eighth.

У числівнику nine випускається буква e: nine – ninth.

До числівників, які закінчуються на –ty, додається суфікс – eht, а буква у змінюється на і: thirty – thirtieth, fifty – fiftieth та ін.

У складених порядкових числівниках лише останній набуває форми порядкового: the two hundred and thirty fifth.

Перед порядковим числівником ставиться означений артикль: the first, the tenth.

Позначення номерів може здійснюватися двома шляхами – за допомогою порядкових або кількісних числівників: the first lesson або lesson one, the third paragraph або paragraph three.

Зверніть увагу: page 20 – page twenty, room 5 – room five. Якщо перед порядковим числівником стоїть неозначений артикль, цей числівник набуває додаткового значення – ще один: We bought a second chair.

Десяткові дроби (decimal fractions) розділяються крапкою (point) 9.5 nine point five – дев’ять цілих п’ять десятих; 6.75 six point seven five – шість цілих п’ять десятих.

Прості дроби (vulgar fractions) читаються так, як і в українській мові – знаменник – кількісний числівник, а числівник – порядковий.

½ – a (one) half

¼ – a (one) quarter, one-fourth

3 ¾ – three and three quarters (fourths)

5 ½ – five and a half.

Читання дат.

April 10 1979 a) April the tenth, nineteen seventy nine;

b) The tenth of April, nineteen seventy-nine.

June 22 1809 a) June the twenty second, eighteen zero nine;

b) The twenty second of June, eighteen o nine.

Нуль читається як zero, o [ou] або nought [no:t].

Парні числівники – even numbers; непарні числівники – odd numbers. Просте математичне число – prime number, комплексне число – complex number. Зворотні дроби – reciprocal fractions.

Найпростіші математичні дії:

Додавання (Addition): 3+5=8 we add three to five and get eight or three and five equals eight. Or three and five is (are) eight.

Віднімання (substraction): 9-5=4 we substract five from nine and get four or we take away five from nine. Or five from nine is four.

Множення (multiplication): 4x5=20 we multiply four by five and get twenty or four times five is twenty. Or four fives is twenty. Or four multiplied by five is twenty.

Ділення (Division): 20:4=5 we divide twenty by four and get five. Or twenty divided by four is five.

Ступінь 5³ =125 Five to the power of three is 125.

√4- squire root of 4.

Exercise 1. Read the following numbers:

1; 90; 15; 101; 452; 3,250; 973,000; 1925(рік); 1000,000; 5,943,267; √16; ¾; 5 ⅔; 6.9; 7.85; 0.

Exercise 2. Write the following cardinal numbers.

7; 12; 17; 21; 55; 324; 1104; 2006 (рік); 84,845; 1064 (рік); 1 000 000; √4; ⅝; 3¾; 1.25; 0.5.

Exercise 3. Write the following ordinal numbers.

238; 5000; 3; 15; 23; 1,000,000; 6,573; 9,603; 8; 54; 401.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Learn information about adjectives and then do exercises.

It is important to distinguish between two kinds of adjectives, limit and gradable adjectives.

Gradable adjectives express qualities that can exist in different strengths: more or less powerful, very small etc.

Limit adjectives have the strongest meaning: exhausted means 'very tired', tremendous means 'very big'.

For this reason, it sounds odd to say 'very tremendous' or 'very exhausted'. So we do not use 'very' with limit adjectives like 'exhausted' tremendous' because they already mean 'very tired' and 'very big'.

If we want to intensify such adjectives we need an adverb like 'absolutely': absolutely exhausted.

Exercise 1. Translate the following adjective:

Much more powerful.

What is the degree of this adjective? What for do we use much?

Intensify the adjectives of comparative degree using much.

e.g. much heavier – значно важчий

Use adjectives in the sentences of your own. Remember we use than to compare one thing to another.

e.g. The reciprocating engines are much heavier than jet engines.

Exercise 2. Use your dictionary to pick up more limit adjectives which mean 'very big'.

Exercise 3. Match each gradable adjective in the left-hand column with its stronger equivalent, limit adjective, from the right-hand column.

1. _ good 2. _ difficult 3. _ funny 4. _ hot 5. _ cold 6. _ interesting 7. _ dirty 8. _ tasty 9. _ bad 10._ frightened 11._ big 12._ angry 13. _tired 14. _surprised

a. tremendous b. terrified c. perfect d. disgusting e. filthy f. exhausted g. ridiculous h. boiling i. fascinating j. freezing k. impossible l. delicious m. astonished n. furious

Exercise 4. Speak about:

1) Reciprocating engine.

2) Jet engine.

3) Rocket engine.

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Read and listen to the text.

Inside the cockpit, the pilot has a variety of controls, instruments, and navigation aids. Most planes have a yoke (control wheel) that operates the ailerons and elevator. A few special types of planes such as fighters and spray planes have a control stick instead of a yoke. Two rudder pedals control the rudder. Various engine instruments record the fuel supply, oil pressure, and other information about the engine. Flight instruments show the plane's speed, altitude, and attitude (position) in the air.

Some airplanes have an automatic pilot, which is also called an autopilot or gyropilot. This device is connected to the airplane's controls and automatically keeps the plane on course.

yoke	штурвал	altitude	висота польоту
control stick	важіль керування	attitude	положення у просторі

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1. What are situated in the cockpit?

2. What kind of planes has control stick?

3. What information is shown on the flight instruments?

Exercise 3. Read, translate and dramatize the following dialogue.

Engineer: What seems to be a trouble?

Aviator: I think some of the rivets have pulled loose. You can move the skin where it should be tight.

Engineer: I’ll have a look. How about pulling off the fillets at the wing roots? I’ll keep on opening these inspection plates aft of the main spar.

Aviator: There certainly are a lot of hatches on this airplane.

Engineer: Well, there’s one for each important member that’s likely to show wear. Those fillets you’re taking off will let us look at some important clusters in the fuselage – where the wings attach to the longerons.

Aviator: Let’s be sure to fasten all these things before we fly it again.

Engineer: Don’t worry. When you make the test flight in this airplane, I’m going along. I don’t want to feel any burbling or buffeting to remind me I forgot to fasten something. I plan to remember ahead of time.

Aviator: Your thoroughness has always impressed me. I’m impressed even more when you say you want to go along on the test flight.

Engineer: OK. Now give me a hand in inspecting the rear of the fuselage.

aft buffeting bulkhead cluster fillet

до хвоста вібрація перегородка група частин ущільнення

inspection plate rivet skin spar stringer

кришка люку заклепка обшивка лонжерон стрингер (балка міцності)

Граматичні відомості

Дієслово та його форми

Дієслово (the verb) – частина мови, яка зазвичай означає дію або стан (так звані смислові дієслова). Дієслова бувають прості (to do, to speak, to tell та ін.), похідні, тобто утворені за допомогою суфіксів і префіксів (to dislike, to widen та ін.), і складні, які утворюють одне значення двома словами (to come in, to go on, to broadcast та ін.).

До найуживаніших дієслівних префіксів відносяться:

re-: to retell, to rewrite, to reconstruct

dis-: to disappear, to disarm, to discharge

un-: to undo, to unload, to unite

До найуживаніших суфіксів належать:

-en: to shorten, to broaden, to strengthen

-fy: to signify, to clarify, to simplify, to magnify

-ize: to organize, to memorize, to mobilize

-ate: to graduate, to separate, to demonstrate

Також існують особливі дієслова, що характеризують не саму дію чи стан, а наше відношення до них, імовірність здійснення дії. Це слова can, must, need, will, shell, may, must та деякі інші, що утворюють невелику особливу групу так званих модальних дієслів які будуть розглянуті далі (стор. 101).

Три дієслова – to be, to have та to do у багатьох випадках використовуються не як смислові, а як допоміжні і не мають самостійного значення, а вживаються лише для утворення певної граматичної форми (стор. 51).

Деякі дієслова, у першу чергу to be, використовуються як дієслова-зв’язки у складеному присудку:

He is a student. – Він студент.

Повернемось до "звичайних", смислових дієслів. Як і в українській мові, вони можуть вживатися в особовій формі, у функції присудка:

He lives in Kyiv. – Він живе у Києві.

Особові форми показують особу, число, спосіб (дійсний, наказовий, умовний), час, стан (активний та пасивний).

Вони мають від трьох до п'яти форм (особливе дієслово to be – 8 форм), як показано в таблиці 5:

Таблиця 5

Форми дієслів в англійській мові

Verb Form	Regular	Irregular
		Type 1	Type 2	Type 3	Be
Infinitive, Imperative, Present (All Persons, except 3d, singular)	wait	put	hear	write	be, am, are
Present, 3d person, sing.	waits	puts	hears	writes	is
Past Simple singular plural	waited	put	heard	wrote	was, were
Participle I (-ing)	waiting	putting	hearing	writing	being
Participle II	waited	put	heard	written	been

Основна форма (base form) збігається з інфінітивом без частки to та виражає дію чи стан в теперішньому часі (Present Simple), окрім третьої особи однини (he, she, it), а також використовується в наказовому способі (Imperative).

Форма третьої особи однини (he, she, it) Present Simple утворюється додаванням -s (-es) до 'base form': work – works, teach – teaches, play – plays, do – does. Виняток: have – has. Якщо -y передує голосний, -y змінюється на –ies: carry – carries, cry – cries, try – tries.

Якщо дієслова правильні (Regular Verbs), форма минулого часу Past Simple утворюється додаванням -ed до 'base form'. У неправильних (Irregular) дієслів 1-го типу три форми збігаються: set – set – set, hit – hit – hit, let – let – let. У дієслів 2-го типу співпадають 2 форми: say – said – said, stick – stack – stack. Повний список неправильних дієслів наведений у додатку 1 (стор. 192).

Безособові форми дієслова – інфінітив (the infinitive), герундій (the gerund) і дієприкметник (the participle) – не мають звичайних форм особи, числа, способу і не можуть бути присудком, хоча і бувають у його складі:

To be or not to be … (інфінітив)

I am fond of reading (герундій)

A man standing by the window… (дієприкметник)

A broken glass (дієприкметник)

Exercise 1. Make all possible forms for the following verbs.

Example: do – does – did – done – doing

Save, believe, can, expect, penetrate, sit, lie, lay, see, buy, eat, study, rise, set, understand, solve, need, set, bite, drink, drive, eat, learn, feed, hit, oversee, build, rewrite, fly, sink.

Exercise 2. Give five examples of regular verbs and five examples of irregular verbs for each of three types of verbs listed in Chart 5.

Exercise 3. Translate the dialogue and find out presented verb forms.

Engineer: We can start on the electrical system now. Do you have any complaints?

Aviator: Well, I told you yesterday about the popped circuit breaker on the navigation light. The loadmeters seem to be running a bit high, too.

Engineer: There must be a short somewhere in the wiring. We’ll check the whole circuit against the schematic.

Aviator: What’s that instrument you’re carrying?

Engineer: It’s a voltmeter. It’s helpful in determining the condition of the battery and generator. Voltmeters are designed to measure either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). I’ve also used an ammeter to measure electrical current.

Aviator: My airplane has a generator producing DC power. I know some airplanes have alternators producing either AC or DC.

Engineer: Right. Your aircraft gets AC power from the inverter. The DC power comes straight from the bus bar. On aircraft with AC power, DC power can be created from a transformer/rectifier (TR) unit.

Aviator: The auxiliary power unit (APU) has its own generator.

Engineer: Correct. It can power the aircraft electrical system without the engines running. Also, when you start the engines, the starters use a lot of current. The APU saves your battery.

Aviator: All the electrical circuits are protected by circuit breakers. You don’t see many fuses these days, except on older aircraft.

Engineer: Very true. It’s much easier to reset a circuit breaker than to find a fuse and replace it in the dark.

alternator auxiliary power unit (APU) battery bus bar rectifier

генератор змінного струму допоміжна силова установка батарея лінійна шина випрямляч (струму)

circuit breaker schematic fuse inverter loadmeter short circuit

аварійний вимикач схема запобіжник інвертор, зворотній перетворювач лічильник коротке замикання

Комунікативна практика

Politeness

Exercise 1. Discuss the following situations.

1. You’re on a bus. The person next to you is playing loud music. What would you say?

A. Would you mind turning your music down, please?

B. Excuse me, but I can’t read my book with all that noise.

C. You’re very rude, aren’t you?

2. You’re in class. The student behind you is kicking your chair. What would you say?

A. Can you stop that, I can’t concentrate.

B. Teacher! He’s kicking my chair!

C. Stop that now!

3. It’s the middle of the night. Your neighbour’s dog is barking. Would you:

A. phone your neighbor and say ‘Could you stop Mitzy barking, please?’

B. phone the police and say ‘Would you come quick, there’s a dangerous animal at Number 22!’

C. open the window and shout ‘SHUT UP!’

4. You’re having a romantic dinner in a restaurant. A man near you is shouting on his mobile phone. What would you say?

A. Do you mind moving somewhere else?

B. Waiter! Please tell this man to go outside.

C. I’m sorry, but we’re trying to be romantic here!

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with a word from the box.

off (x2) on (x2) down up over

1. I hate it when my alarm goes ________ in the morning.

2. I want to listen to that program. Please turn the radio ________.

3. As soon as he gets home, he switches ________the TV and watches the evening news.

4. Can we turn ________ to Channel 4, please? I want to watch that Italian film.

5. Please turn the radio _________. I can’t hear it very well.

6. Let’s switch the TV ________ and have dinner in peace!

7. That music’s too loud. Please turn it ________.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Derive nouns from the following verbs.

to store, to collect, to exhaust, to solve, to mix, to manage, to prepare, to discover.

Exercise 2. Translate into Ukrainian (Russian).

1. To solve the problem of the shortage of energy the world needs a source of perpetual energy.

2. To trap a high amount of solar energy we use the focusing collector.

3. To heat water to high temperatures people often use solar energy.

4. Experts predicting the exhaustion of the supply of fossil fuels base their prediction on the present rate of increase in energy.

Exercise 3. Make groups of nouns, adjectives and verbs.

substance, reactive, life, contain, essential, tissue, free, try, dry, traces, yellow, call, become, great, part, magic, new, weight, catch, plentiful, bones, precious, usual, nature, fillet, manage, aileron, believe.

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Read and translate the dialogue.

Aviator: Now when we’ve opened up the airplane, what do you plan to do?

Engineer: We’ll start with the controls. Tell me about anything that’s wrong with the way it flies.

Aviator: Oh, there hasn’t been anything.

Engineer: Good. We’ll have a good look at the whole system, anyway. The cable tension might be wrong, a push-pull rod might not be safetied, or a pulley might be worn.

Aviator: You don’t sound so optimistic.

Engineer: I want it to be perfect when it flies again.

Aviator: Right. I remember an airplane I flew which had aileron boost instead of deboost. It wasn’t very stable.

Engineer: I won’t let that happen. I’ll personally guarantee that the ailerons will work right and the elevators will respond to the control wheel.

Aviator: Good.

Engineer: Before I get inside the fuselage, let’s have a look at this elevator. Do you see anything wrong with the tab?

Aviator: No, it looks OK to me.

Engineer: This could be serious. Notice how this cotter key has broken off. If it fell out, it could let the wire in the piano hinge slide out to the point of locking the elevators in an up or down position. Now, what do you think of that?

Aviator: It scares me. But the one on the other side and the one on the rudder looks OK don’t they?

Engineer: Yes, they’re all right. This is something you should have seen on your visual inspections.

Aviator: I won’t let that slip by again. Watching you run this inspection is doing me a lot of good.

Engineer: Well, now we’re ready to get down to really going over this plane.

Aviator: Tell me what you’re doing, will you?

Engineer: Right. I’ll first check out all the cables, the push-pull rods, and the bell cranks. Then I’ll check the attaching points of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers. After that, I’ll check the travel of the flaps and spoilers and make sure they move equal distances on both sides. After that, will you hold the rudder pedals against the stops so I can check for equal movement?

Aviator: I’ll be glad to help.

bell crank boost cable controls cotter key elevator hinge

розтруб форсаж кабель пристрої керування клин, шпонка руль висоти шарнір

pulley push-pull rod rudder spoiler tab trim turnbuckle

ролик двотактний важіль руль напрямку спойлер тример балансувати хомутик, стяжка

Exercise 2. Select the proper term.

1. We’re going to install the new elevator (flaps, cables).

2. I’ll help guide it over this (pulley, boost).

3. I don’t think the elevators have enough (travel, tension).

4. Maybe we can adjust the (spoiler, stops) to give more move­ment.

5. We must be careful to get the right (tension, tab) on the cables.

6. Could that be why I’ve needed so much elevator (trim, flaps) on each landing?

7. They’ll put a new (turnbuckle, cotter key) in the piano hinge.

8. I’ve found a piano hinge which isn’t (satisfied, stable).

Граматичні відомості

Часи дієслів

На відміну від слов'янських мов, в англійській мові дієслова мають лише форми теперішнього та минулого часу (Present and Past). Для відображення подій, які можуть чи повинні відбутися у майбутньому, використовуються модальні дієслова чи форми Present, що ми розглянемо пізніше. Окрім того, в англійській мові існують декілька форм будь-якого смислового дієслова, які відрізняються за своїм характером:

1. дія відбувається регулярно, завжди;

2. розпочалася нещодавно та скоро закінчиться;

3. напевно відбулась (не має значення коли);

4. відбувалась протягом деякого періоду і триває в момент, що розглядається (в окремих випадках може тільки що закінчиться).

Цим формам відповідають так звані "Aspects" англійської мови: Simple (Indefinite), Progressive (Continuous), Perfect та Perfect Progressive. Для утворення кожної з перелічених форм поряд з смисловим дієсловом також використовується допоміжне дієслово, Auxiliary Verb (табл. 6). У наступних розділах всі наведені у табли­ці часові форми будуть розглянуті більш докладно.

Поруч зі вказаною функцією всі допоміжні дієслова можуть вживатися як смислові.

Дієслово to be може вживатися у значенні ″бути″, ″існувати″, ″знаходитись″, ″коштувати″, ″траплятися″: The books are on the table. Крім того це дієслово у сполученні з наступним інфінітивом може мати модальне значення для вираження необхідності виконати дію відповідно до попередньої домовленості чи за попереднім планом: They are to meet at ten.

Найбільш уживані вирази з дієсловом to be:

to be glad (pleased) – бути радим (задоволеним)

to be happy (delighted) – бути щасливим

to be sad – бути сумним

to be hungry – бути голодним (хотіти їсти)

to be thirsty – хотіти пити, відчувати спрагу

to be healthy (ill) – бути здоровим (хворим)

to be sorry – жалкувати

to be ready for something – бути готовим до чогось

to be late for something – спізнюватися на щось

to be 10 minutes late – спізнитися на 10 хвилин

to be 10 minutes slow (fast) – відставати (поспішати) на 10 хвилин (про годинник)

to be comfortable (uncomfortable) – почувати себе зручно (незручно)

to be sure (certain) of something – бути впевненим у чомусь

to be mistaken – помилятися

to be surprised at somebody – дивуватися комусь

to be angry with somebody – сердитися на когось

to be for (against) something (somebody) – бути за (проти) чогось (когось)

to be with something – бути зайнятим чимось.

Таблиця 6

Форми дієслів теперішнього та минулого часів

As-pect	Simple		Progressive		Perfect		Perfect Progressive
Auxi-liary	do*		be		have		have been
Form	Base		Participle I		Participle II		Participle I
Present	I you we they	go	I you we they he she it	am are going is	I you we they he she it	have gone has	I you we they he she it	have been going has
	he she it	goes
Form	Past Simple		Participle I		Participle II		Participle I
Past	I you we they	went	I you we they he she it	was were going was	I you we they he she it	had gone	I you we they had been he going she it
	he she it

^*Допоміжне дієслово to do звичайно використовується в питальних та негативних реченнях і тому в таблиці, яка складена для позитивних речень, його немає. Однак воно використовується в деяких емфатичних (підсилювальних) конструкціях: Do you like him? – I do like him.

Дієслово to have може використовуватися як смислове діє­слово у значенні “мати”, “володіти”: We have a TV set. Воно також вживається як модальне дієслово, що виражає необхідність за певних обставин: We have to buy a TV set.

Найбільш уживані вирази з дієсловом to have:

to have breakfast (dinner, supper) – снідати (обідати, вечеряти)

to have a talk – розмовляти

to have a walk (a swim) – погуляти, поплавати

to have a good time – добре проводити час

to have a look – поглянути

to have something done – зробити щось (за чиєюсь ініціа­тивою), наприклад: he had his hair cut – він підстригся; they had their photos taken – вони сфотографувалися (тобто їх сфотографували).

Дієслово to do може використовуватися у значенні “робити”, “виконувати”: What will you do tomorrow?, We did our work yesterday. Це слово може вживатися для підсилення наступного самостійного дієслова у стверджувальному реченні:

Do come in! – Неодмінно заходьте!

He did come. – Він таки прийшов.

Крім того, воно може використовуватись як замінник попереднього дієслова: He worked as well as I did. – Він працював так само добре, як (працював) і я.

Комунікативна практика

Achievements

Exercise 1. Match the verbs with the correct nouns.

Verbs win pass receive invent solve achieve

Nouns an ambition a certificate a race an exam a machine/device a problem

Exercise 2. Discuss in pairs what thing are the most important in human life.

Exercise 3. Underline the correct answer. Why were these people famous?

1. The artist Pablo Picasso was French/Spanish.

2. The 1970s group ABBA were from Germany/Sweden.

3. Franz Kafka was a famous musician/writer.

4. From 1994 to 1999, Nelson Mandela was the President of South Africa/Zimbabwe.

5. Spice Girls were popular in the 1990s/in the 1970s.

6. Marie Curie was born in Warsaw/Paris.

7. Wilbur and Orville Wright were Russian/American.

8. John Lennon and Paul McCartney were both originally from London/Liverpool.

9. Pilot Maresev took part in Word War I/Word War II.

10. Marilyn Monroe’s real name was Norma Gean Baker/Gean Harlow.

11. Yuri Gagarin was famous as a pilot/an astronaut.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1.Translate the dialogue into Ukrainian (Russian).

Aviator: There certainly is a lot of plumbing in this airplane.

Engineer: Yes, and we’ll have a look at all of it. It isn’t as complicated as some airplanes, though.

Aviator: How could it be much more complicated?

Engineer: Well, it could have single-point fueling, for instance. Or, it could have a wet-wing instead of bladders for fuel cells.

Aviator: I suppose you’re right. What are you looking for in the fuel system?

Engineer: We’ll check everything from the fuel caps to the fuel control.

Aviator: Let’s see. That means checking the fuel lines, the fuel selector, and the boost pumps.

Engineer: It means a little more than that. The draincocks have to be checked, and all the sediment has to be removed from the fuel strainers. We’ll check the cross-feed system, and we’ll make sure the vents are open.

Aviator: That’s a lot of checking. Is there anything else?

Engineer: Yes. The fuel quantity probes must be checked and calibrated, and we’ll have to make sure the vent lines are open.

Aviator: I just thought of something else: the transfer pumps.

Engineer: Right. We’re really looking for anything that could cause a fire in the fuel system. This fuel can cause a pretty hot fire.

Aviator: We don’t want any fire except where it belongs – in the engines. Let’s make sure our dry-wing really is dry. By the way, don’t you want me to leave you alone so you can get your job done?

Engineer: You’re not bothering me. I’ll be happy to have you watch the whole inspection if you have the time.

Aviator: Oh, I have the time. It’s a real education to see this. I think every pilot should learn what really makes his airplane work. The squawks we get from pilots would make more sense.

bladder boost pump cell cross-feed system draincock dry/wet-wing fuel cap fuel control fuel lines fuel quantity probe

контейнер для пального додаткова помпа відсік система відбору палива з будь-якого баку дренажний клапан паливні системи кришка на баку регулятор палива паливні труби індикатор рівня палива

fuel strainer plumbing sediment single-point fueling squawk transfer pumps vent

паливний фільтр система труб відстій подача палива з одного джерела нарікання на дефект (сленг) помпи для пере-качування пального вентиляційний отвір

Exercise 2. Define if the following statements are true or false.

1. A cross-feed system is a device for mixing air and fuel.

2. A dry-wing is one which uses bladders to hold the fuel.

3. Fuel lines are tubes which carry air to the engine.

4. Sediment is foreign matter in the fuel.

5. A squawk is a measure of the quality of engine fuel.

6. Transfer pumps are used to check the quantity of fuel in an airplane.

7. A fuel cap is used to select the route of fuel flow.

8. Draincocks are used to drain off water and dirt.

9. A device for measuring the quantity of fuel is a fuel quantity probe.

10. A fuel selector is used only during an emergency.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to the structure of airplanes, history of aviation, and related fields.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Нижче наведені типові вправи, що можуть бути використані під час підготовки до письмового тесту.

Exercise 1. Give plurals to the following words if possible:

A house, a knife, a lady, a child, a tooth, a key, a city, a fly, a man, a chair, a box, a chief, potato, people, a mouse, a tomato, a life, a goose, a formula, a radius, a salmon, an index, a play, a deer.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences with pronouns little/a little и few/a few – небагато/майже нема.

It allows the flow of electricity with ______ or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

The lifespan of the satellite was expected to be only _______ months.

Every ______ seconds at least a bit of space dust burned harmlessly into the atmosphere. The brightest flares left shimmering trails that hung for ________ seconds.

In the ensuing years, ______ engineers made other significant advances.

Astronomers delivered _____ piece of good news on Wednesday – we are much less likely to get wiped out by a big asteroid than previously thought.

We've got a lot to do for the first _______ weeks.

Exercise 3. Make up comparative degrees with the following adjectives.

Example: fast – faster – the fastest

Big, little, good, bad, long, fine, active, comfortable, hot, thin.

Exercise 4. Insert articles whenever required.

1. We have . . . new gladder . . . is quite big.

2. There is . . . old plane in front of the building.

3. On . . . 17^th of . . . December, 1903, . . . brother Wright, . . . Americans, flew . . . first propeller-driven heavier-than-air . . . aircraft . . . first . . . flight had . . . distance of . . . 120 feet, at . . . altitude of . . . 10 feet, and . . . duration of only . . . our country.

4. . . . Black Sea is in . . . south of . . . our country.

5. Kyiv is to . . . south of . . . Moscow.

6. . . . Washington DC is . . . capital of . . . United States of America.

Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian (or Russian).

1. He shaves himself.

2. Peter is a friend of mine.

3. You and I have a car; yours is newer than mine.

4. I like this airplane more than that.

5. Gagarin and Korolev liked each other very much.

6. Football players pass the ball to one another.

7. She will do it by herself.

8. Landing requirements are the same as in your country.

Exercise 6. Make new words from the following words using common suffixes and prefixes.

symbol, to consider, to add, position, to depend, to calculate, to resist, to adopt, to possess, to multiply.

Exercise 7. Fill in each blank with a suitable term.

1. In 1841 another Britisher, by the name of William Henson, designed the first propeller-_________ airplane.

2. Special governmental programs and organizations provide the requirements for the certification of ________, ______, and other personnel who have direct influence on the safe operation of the aircraft.

3. The part of the __________for the crew is called the cockpit or _________.

4. The ___________ is a structure that supports the airplane on the ground.

5. Movable control surfaces help ________ the plane in flight.

6. The engine of most single-engine planes is located in the ______part of the _____. However, some jet planes have one or all of their engines at the ______ of the __________.

7. The _________ is like a small wing in the tail of an airplane.

Exercise 8. Explain the terms below with other words.

1. Landing gear.

2. Trim tab.

3. Flap.

4. Taxiing.

5. Fuel tank.

6. Descent.

7. Pilot.

Module 2. The electric current and its properties

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text.

Electricity is one of the basic forms of energy. Electricity is associated with electric charge, a property of certain elementary particles such as electrons and protons, two of the basic particles that make up the atoms of all ordinary matter. Electric charges can be stationary, as in static electricity, or moving, as in an electric current.

The charges are free electrons (in metals) or ions (in liquids and gases). We can easily understand the nature of the electric current on the basis of electron theory. An atom is a complex particle in which tiny electrons move around a nucleus. In metals some of the electrons move freely among the atoms. There are free electrons. The electromotive force causes the electrons to move through the metal conductor.

There are two types of the electric current, namely, the direct current (d. c. for short) and alternating current (a. c.). The electric current can heat a conductor, it can have chemical action, or it can produce the magnetic effect.

The electric current starts to flow from a battery or a generator, passes through wires, lamps, meters and other resistance and returns to its starting point. All these devices and conductors constitute the circuit. A steady electric current, like a water current, has the same value at all parts of a simple unbranched circuit.

The electric current flows only when there is a different of potential between the two points in the circuit. The opposition to the current flow is the resistance. Thus we can say that the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance (Ohm’s law).

There are special units of measurement of electric quantities. The ampere is a unit of rate of flow of electric current. The ampere indicates the amount of electric current. The volt is a unit of electrical pressure. The international volt creates a current of one international ampere in a conductor, which has a resistance of one international ohm. The watt is a unit of power, which electric devices develop. One watt is equal to a current of one ampere as a result of one volt.

We measure these electrical quantities with the help of special instruments named as measuring devices. We measure current with ammeter, voltage with voltmeter and power with wattmeter.

Ammeters measure the current flowing in a circuit and normally have scales graduated (or calibrated) in amperes, milliamperes, or microamperes. The ammeter has a low resistance coil not to absorb an appreciable amount of power; therefore, we connect the ammeter into a circuit in series.

Voltmeters measure the potential difference between the two points in a circuit. We connect a voltmeter in parallel across the points where it is necessary to measure the difference of potential. The resistance of voltmeter operation coil is as high as possible to limit the amount of power consumed by it.

alternating/direct current (a. c./d.c.) conductor electric charge electric circuit electron electromotive force insulator, isolator ion in series matter

змінний/постійний струм провідник електричний заряд електричне коло електрон електрорушійна сила ізолятор іон послідовно речовина, матерія

meter nucleus, nuclei operating coil potential difference power resistance unbranched voltage to absorb to consume

вимірювальний прилад ядро, ядра робоча котушка різниця потенціалів потужність, напруга опір нерозгалужений напруга поглинати споживати

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What forms of energy do you know?

2. Why electricity is the most important form of energy in modern technologies and everyday life?

3. What are the common sources of electric current?

4. What do you think are advantages and disadvantages of dif­ferent forms of electric current, direct and alternating?

5. What are the main sources of electricity in this country?

6. What main rules of electric current do you know?

7. What types of measuring instruments are employed to fix damages in electric lines?

Exercise 3. Work in pairs. Find out if your classmate …

1. used to work with some electrical instruments.

2. didn’t use to like learning laws of electricity in school.

3. has to study tomorrow.

4. has a million things to do after class.

5. knows the latest weather forecast.

Граматичні відомості

Форма дієслів Simple (Indefinite)

Форма Present Simple виражає:

а) Дії звичайні, постійні, властиві об’єкту взагалі, а не в момент дії, закони природи, визначення.

The classical approach to user authentication is a password.

Users want access to information as quickly as possible.

Students go to the university in the morning.

The Earth goes round the Sun.

The input devices enter the information into the computer.

Computers are electronic devices that process the information.

East or west, home is best.

б) Моделювання перебігу часу, пояснення, репортаж, сцена­рій, авторська ремарка.

When the generator voltage reaches a certain value, the electro-magnet M attracts a small iron armature and opens the contacts S₁. This reduces the generator current and causes voltage to fall.

This program is very easy to operate. Look. I choose icon, click mouse button and it starts.

Mary walks toward the door, hesitates a moment, then goes out.

в) Дії, які відбуваються під час мови, якщо використовуються дієслова, що висловлюють почуття, сприйняття, прагнення – стани на рівні підсвідомості суб’єкта (believe, understand, hate, love, seem та ін.).

I like this program. I see the sky.

I don’t understand the reason.

I believe you. I think you are right.

г) Майбутні дії в підрядних реченнях місця та часу після сполучників if якщо, when коли, until якщо … ні, as soon as як тільки, before до того як і так далі.

We’ll go there unless it rains.

The secret key will of course be changed when any member of the group leaves.

д) Майбутні події, що плануються як реалізація розкладу, планів, особливо часто з дієсловами, які позначують рух.

Tomorrow is Sunday. The train leaves at 5:00.

The meeting takes place on Wednesday.

Форма Past Simple використовується:

1. Для вираження минулої дії з такими позначеннями часу, як last year, the other day, yesterday, at that period:

In 1974 Braun observed that the current-voltage characteristics of the system were asymmetric with respect to the voltage polarity. – У 1974 році Браун винайшов, що вольт-амперні характеристики системи асиметричні щодо полярності напруги.

б) Для вираження минулих дій в тій послідовності, в якій вони відбувались:

The manager entered the office, sat down at his desk, and began to look through the morning male. – Менеджер ввійшов до офісу, сів за свій робочий стіл і розпочав переглядати ранкову пошту.

в) Для звичайної дії в минулому, що повторюється:

Last winter we skated a lot. – Минулої зими ми багато каталися на ковзанах.

У тому ж самому значенні часто використовується сполучення used + infinitive, яке часто перекладається як звичайно:

Last winter we used to skate.

At this stage the samples used to be purified selenium and tellurium. – На цій стадії як зразки звичайно використовувались очищені селен та телур.

Як вже згадувалось раніш, в англійській мові немає форми майбутнього часу дієслів, тому для висловлення наміру або впевненості щодо здійснення дії у майбутньому звичайно викорис­товуються конструкції з модальними дієсловами (найчастіше з will) або форми теперішнього часу:

I will work tomorrow.

The plain arrives at 5 tomorrow.

Форма Simple (Indefinite) – це єдина часова форма, де в явній формі відсутні допоміжні дієслова. “Приховане” допоміжне дієслово do (does) з’являється лише у питальних та заперечних реченнях:

Does the electron turn around nucleus?

Do you speak English?

I don’t understand you.

It didn’t have enough power to start.

Exercise 1. Find out 10 sentences with Simple Tense in the text from pages 58-59. Transform each of them into negative and interrogative forms.

Exercise 2. Make 5 sentences in the future form concerning the text from pages 58-59.

Комунікативна практика

Correcting mistakes

Listen to the conversation, then use it as a model to make up you own dialogue.

A: How can we produce oxygen?

B: We have to pass alternating current through common water.

A: Maybe direct current…

B: Well, I stand corrected.

A: What is water’s formula?

B: H₃O.

A: H₂O.

B: I mean H₂O.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 58-59 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Make new words from the following words using common suffixes and prefixes. Use them in sentences to illustrate their meaning.

Example: differ – different – differential – differences.

The two methods differ greatly.

The methods are quite different.

He proposed a machine to perform differential equations.

We must take into account a difference between results.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What types of electric measuring devices do you know?

2. Why do you think metals are the best conductors?

3. Could you formulate the Ohm’s law?

4. What kind of electric current is more convenient to use at home, direct or alternating? Explain your point of view.

5. What is resistance? Why different materials have not the same resistance?

6. What do you know about the alternative sources of electric energy?

7. What is the difference between an ammeter and voltmeter? How different are the ways of connection of these instruments into electric circuit?

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps using the list of words below.

According to _________ theory, the electron is responsible for a flow of current of electricity. Good _________ are considered to be those substances in which there are present free electrons in constant but indiscriminate motion between the atoms. Under the action of an _________ force, these free electrons move in some definite direction, resulting in a constant stream of electrons flowing at a phenomenally rapid rate in the conductor. In the case a unidirectional or _________ current, this electronic stream is always in one direction, whilst with an _________ current the electronic stream reverses its _________ of motion with regular frequency. All pure _________ are good conductors of electricity, silver being the best since it offers the least _________ to a flow of current of electricity. We know copper to be very nearly as good a conductor as silver and, being very much cheaper, it is extensively used for electrical _________ of all kinds. It is universally employed in all aircraft electrical _________.

The conductor being a _________, say, of salt in water, the molecules of salt are ionized, both positive and negative ions moving under the influence of the electric field. In this case the sum of the quantities of positive and negative electricity, _________by the ions in a unit of time through any cross-section of the liquid, constitutes the electric current. Such a current is usually accompanied by a chemical action.

An electric current is carried through a gas only when the molecules or atoms of the gas are ionized. Here again, both the positive and negative _________ or electrons move under the influence of the electric _________, the sum of the quantities of _________ and negative electricity carried by the ions in a unit of time through any cross-section of the gas constituting the electric _________.

conductors current electromotive field direct alternative equipment electronic direction metals resistance apparatus solution carried ions positive

Граматичні відомості

Форма дієслів Progressive (Continuous)

Під час використання форми Present Progressive (Continuous) мають на увазі, що дія відбувається зараз (хоча не обов’язково під час мовлення) і триває певний проміжок часу. Головна відмінність від Present Simple полягає в тому, що під час використання Progressive мається на увазі, що за межами цього проміжку часу дій нема, вони мають тимчасовий характер. Його тривалість чи вказується безпосередньо (now, this year, etc.), що випливає з контексту.

Приклади: When ‘software’ is running, there is no software there: there is only hardware memory. – Коли програма починає працювати [лише в цей період], її ще немає, працює лише пам’ять машини.

Порівняйте: a) She sings very well (she can do it and sometimes she does). – Вона добре співає (уміє та інколи це робить).

b) She is singing in a bar now (to make a quick penny). – Вона тимчасово підробляє співачкою у барі.

Як вже згадувалось раніше, є низка дієслів, які описують неспонтанні стани (сприйняття – hear, see, feel), судження (consider, doubt, approve), почуття (love, hate, like), які в формі Progressive звичайно не використовуються.

Слід зазначити, що в ряді випадків ці дієслова можуть використовуватися також в формі Progressive, але їх смисл при цьому звичайно деякою мірою відрізняється:

I’m seeing (відвідую) my brother more often now.

The equipment is improving more and more. – Обладнання удосконалюється (мається на увазі, що раніш цього не було).

Нарешті, як і Present Simple, Present Progressive використовується для опису майбутніх подій, зазвичай у розмовній мові. – He is coming to visit us.

Найчастіше за все для опису майбутнього використовується ідіома to be going to, яка близька за значенням до модального дієслова will: It is certainly true that in most situations of new construction a few extra bytes are not going to be a problem. – Цілком зрозуміло, що в більшості нових конструкцій декілька зайвих байтів не будуть проблемою.

Різниця у значенні між згаданими конструкціями полягає у тому, що дієслово will звичайно використовується у випадках, коли намір щодо майбутнього остаточний, рішення вже прийнято, а ідіома to be going to – у випадках, коли повної впевненості ще нема.

Past Progressive відрізняється від Present Progressive тим, що період, під час якого відбувається подія, знаходиться у минулому. Цей період може бути позначений явно (at six o’clock, whole evening, all day long и т. д.), за допомогою Past Simple чи просто мається на увазі:

It was raining when I left the house.

Коли дві тривалі дії відбуваються в минулому одночасно, вони обидві виражаються за допомогою Past Simple чи Past Progressive. У першому випадку лише констатується факт дії, в другому – дія показується як процес.

While he had his breakfast, I read the book.

While he was having his breakfast, I was reading.

Якщо дія, виражена Past Progressive, переривається якоюсь короткочасною дією, то така дія виражається Past Simple:

I was driving home the day before yesterday when I saw a small red car parked near the gas station. – Коли я їхав позавчора додому, я побачив невелику червону машину, яка стояла біля заправки.

Exercise 1. Discuss the differences in meaning of the italicized verbs in sentences below:

1. I feel that it is important to take into account all views.

2. I’m feeling well today.

3. This new baby-toy feels soft.

4. Little Ann is feeling the new toy.

5. I have an apartment in new district of city.

6. I’m having hard days now.

7. He remembers everything about this accident.

8. Kate is looking through her notebook and she is remembering very interesting discussion at the conference.

Exercise 2. Select either Present Simple or Present Progressive form for the verbs in parentheses.

Several teams of astronomers (take) part in the experiment, which (map) one-quarter of the sky using the telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico. Its main purpose is to look at objects outside Earth’s galaxy, but it also (catalog) smaller and closer objects such as asteroids. “We (see) radio waves emitted by water molecules,” Gomez said. “They are all destroyed within 100 years of the beginning of this stage, so we (see) this star during an extremely brief transition period of its life.”

Radio receiver (consist) of straightforward high-frequency amplifier, detector, and low-frequency amplifier circuits.

How to make it rain is probably the last thing the flood-drenched inhabitants of the UK and elsewhere in Europe (want) to think about at the moment. But the natural variability of the weather (regardless of any enhancement from global warming) (mean) we are bound to be facing drought again sooner or later. And drought (be), of course, the normal preoccupation of people in many parts of the world.

Exercise 3. Translate paying special attention to the meaning of the word ‘follow’.

1. It will allow Norman and his group to extend the dynamic range of its calculations on both the high end (to start with a larger portion of the universe) and the low (to follow the condensing protostellar cloud to the point of ignition).

2. This followed a chance observation by the late Graeme Mather, a South African weather researcher.

3. The stated conclusion does not follow from the evidence supplied.

4. An increase in both the bell-shaped S curve and the slope of the δQ curve is apparent for heating temperatures up to 500 K followed by a decrease at higher temperatures.

5. As a follow-up to recent researches we are publishing a review on the subject.

6. Their experimental method consisted of displaying field effect in the dark and under illumination following different heat treatment.

Комунікативна практика

Призначення зустрічі

Listen to the phone conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.

A: Good morning, Primesecurity Associates, Helen speaking.

B: I’d like to speak to Mr. Brown, please.

A: Who’s calling, please?

B: My name is John Parking. Mr. Brown asked me to get in touch when I arrived in your city.

A: Please hold.

C: Good morning, Mr. Parking, Karl Adams speaking. Mr. Brown isn’t in right now, but he’s waiting for you. Do you need any help with accommodation?

A: Thank you, no problem. I’m in a Galaxy Hilton.

C: I’m looking forward to meeting you.

A: What time could I arrive?

C: Can you come by tomorrow at 9 o’clock?

A: Yes, I think so. Where are you located?

B: We’re at the new office building just in front the Star Market building. You can just walk here from your hotel. It wouldn’t take more than 15 minutes on foot.

A: Thanks. I’ll see you tomorrow morning.

C: See you, bye-bye.

Some useful phrases to point out the direction:

Walk (go) straight forward (ahead). Go up (down) the street. Walk two blocks (to the next cross, corner, etc.). It’s across from (between, next to, on the (your) left, etc. Turn right (left).

Exercise 1. Work in pairs or small groups. Make an appointment with someone (for business meeting, party, etc.).

Exercise 2. Try to explain someone how to get to some place.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 64-65 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Insert the proper forms of the verb using Simple (I do) or Progressive (I am doing).

1. The Dnipro river _________ (flow) to the Black Sea.

2. This stream ________ (flow) very fast today – much faster than usual.

3. Right now I _________ (look) at the screen. I _________ (see) some figures.

4. John is at the class. He _________ (sit) at a desk. He ________ (pass) a test. The dictionary he ________ (use) _________ (belong, not) to him. It _________ (belong) to Nick.

5. While Tom ________ (eat) his breakfast, Jerry ________ (come) through the door. In other words, when Jerry _______ (come) through the door, Tom __________ (eat) his breakfast.

6. Sam, is it true, that you _________ (go) to the library this afternoon?

7. What time _________ (the next plane/leave)?

Exercise 3. Insert the proper forms of the verb using will or going to.

1. I’ve listened to the weather forecast. I’m sure that it _________ (rain) at 5 o’clock.

2. Are you going shopping? – Yes, I ________ (buy) something for lunch.

3. Peter, can you give me a ride to the airport? – Of course I _____________ take you.

4. What _____________ (do) tomorrow? – I’m working tomorrow morning.

5. The conference __________ (open) on 12 April and ________ (finish) on 15 April.

6. ________ you (invite) Nick to the party? – No, I ___________ (not/invite) him.

7. What are your vacation plans? – I _______ (go) to Crimea.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen to the text and fill in blanks.

There are several different _________ that can supply the voltage ________ to generate an electric current. The two most common ________ are generators and ________ cells.

Generators use mechanical energy, such as water pouring through a dam or the motion of a turbine driven by ________, to produce electricity. The electric _________ on the walls of homes and other _________, from which electricity to operate lights and _________ is drawn, are connected to giant _________ located in electric power _________. Each outlet contains two _________. The voltage between the terminals drives an electric _________ through the appliance that is _______ into the outlet.

Electrolytic cells use __________ energy to produce electricity. Chemical _________ within an electrolytic cell produce a __________ difference between the cell’s terminals. An electric battery __________ of a cell or group of cells connected together.

There are many sources of electric current other than ________ and electrolytic cells. Fuel cells, for example, ______ electricity through chemical reactions. Unlike electrolytic cells, however, ________ cells do not store chemicals and therefore must be constantly refilled.

Certain sources of electric current operate on the __________ that some metals hold onto their electrons more _________ than other metals do. Platinum, for example, holds its ________ less strongly than aluminium does. If a strip of ___________ and a strip of aluminium are pressed together under the proper conditions, some electrons will flow from the platinum to the aluminium. As the aluminium _______ electrons and becomes negative, the platinum loses electrons and becomes _______.

The strength with which a metal holds its electrons varies with _________. If two strips of different metals are ________ and the joint heated, electrons will pass from one strip to the other. Electricity produced ________ by heating is called thermoelectricity.

Some substances emit electrons when they are _______ by light. Electricity produced in this way is called photoelectricity. When ________ is applied to certain crystals, a potential difference _________ across them. Electricity thus produced is called piezoelectricity. Some microphones work on this __________.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the sources of electric power?

2. Which forms of energy can be transformed into electric energy?

3. Which devices of mentioned above are used for creating a direct current and which ones for an alternating current?

4. Could you explain principles of action of a transformer, which change a voltage of the electric current?

5. How is it possible to transform the direct current into the alternating one and vice versa?

6. What do you know about the potential series of metals?

7. What are microphones used for?

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false using information from Exercise 1. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Any electrochemical element could be refilled or recharged.

2. Some outlets of the walls contain 3 or even more terminals.

3. Electrolytic cells as well as fuel cells use chemical reactions to produce electric energy.

4. Piezoelectric cells use the energy of falling water to create the alternating current.

5. Generators can not be used for producing a direct electric current.

6. Platinum has negative charge being immersed into solution of electrolyte together with aluminium.

7. Platinum holds some electrons more weakly than aluminium does.

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВІДОМОСТІ

Особливості використання ідіоми “to be going to do something”

Під час розмови “going to” використовується щодо рішення, яке вже прийняте до початку розмови:

Can you repair the computer? It’s burnt. – I know, I’m going to do it afternoon.

Якщо рішення прийняте щойно, використовується will у значенні “я згоден”.

Could you do it for me? – OK, no problem, I’ll do.

Ідіома “to be going to” часто використовується у випадках, коли теперішні обставини вказують на певну подію у найближчому майбутньому:

We got stuck in a traffic jam. We’re going to be late.

В інших випадках варто використовувати will:

I think Tom will pass his exam.

Exercise. Complete the sentences with ‘be going to’ or will.

1. Come on, hurry up! Make a decision. – Well, we ________ turn left.

2. Did you post a letter? – Don’t worry, I remember. I __________ do it afternoon.

3. Nick, we’re out of floppy disks. – OK. I ________ order this.

4. Ann, do you want me to take you to the station? – No, thanks, Peter __________ take me.

5. I can’t work out how to use this program. – It’s easy. I ___________ show you.

Комунікативна практика

Характеризування людей

В англійській мові існує декілька типових питань про людей в залежності від інформації, що ми бажаємо отримати:

Як він (вона) виглядає? – What does he (she) look like?

Який він (взагалі, тобто звички, характер та ін.)? – What’s he like?

Хто він (ім’я, звідки)? – Who is he?

Чим він займається (професія)? –What’s he?

Що йому подобається робити? – What does he like doing?

Що би він обрав (щодо планів)? – What would he like to do?

Як він себе почуває (як здоров’я)? – How is he?

Exercise 1. Employ the above questions in a conversation with your class mate.

Exercise 2. Work in a group. Describe some well-known person not giving the name. All other class mates have to guess who is it.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 69-70 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Make five examples of general questions and five examples of personal questions to ask your classmates during next lesson. Examples of general information: weather forecast, new model of computer, what’s on TV; examples of personal information: family life, health of co-speaker.

Exercise 3. Combine the content of two sentences into one sentence using clauses of time and condition (see p. 60, г). Note, that you must use comma “,” when the subordinate clause comes before the main clause:

When the weather is fine, we’ll go to the park.

No comma is used when the subordinate clause follows the main clause:

Peter’s going to the cinema after he does homework.

Example: (as soon as) First: Nick will finish his work.

Then: He will watch TV.

Nick will watch TV as soon as he finishes his work. OR

As soon as he finishes his work, Nick will watch TV.

1)	(after)	First: Then:	The rain will stop. I’ll go home.
2)	(when)	First: Then:	I will get home tonight. I’m going to take a shower.
3)	(before)	First: Then:	We are going to get visa. We will leave for Greece.
4)	(if)	First: Then:	Electron will have enough energy. It will reach the anode.
5)	(as soon as)	First: Then:	The cyclone will go to the north. The weather will start improving.
6)	(when)	First: Then:	We well have enough money. Our laboratory will get new equipment.
7)	(if)	First: Then:	I’m going to see Peter tomorrow. I’ll give him your message.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations in sentences of your own:

resistance, generator, semiconductor, flashlight, wire, copper, zinc, acid, cell, direct, alternating, condenser, impedance, coil, circuit, current.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences.

1. The international volt is …

2. The electric current can heat a conductor, …

3. … creates a current of one international ampere in a conductor, which has a resistance of one international ohm.

4. The ammeter has a low resistance coil …

5. The Ohm’s law says that …

6. There are a lot of demonstrations of atmospheric electricity …

7. All tanks with flammable liquids must be carefully grounded because …

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. The load in any electric circuit includes all appliances placed in the circuit, such as lights, radios, fans, buzzers, and toasters but doesn’t include the connecting wires, as well as switches, fuses, and other devices.

2. When pressure is applied to certain crystals, a potential difference develops across them. Electricity thus produced is called photoelectricity. Some photo cameras work on this principle.

3. Iron is the best conductor. Most of connecting wires are made of iron.

4. In certain conditions gold is the best conductor. Because of this it is widely used in electronic equipment.

5. Series connection is the best way for plugging in household appliances.

Граматичні відомості

Форма дієслів Perfect

В технічних текстах форма Perfect використовується порівняно рідко: коли потрібно вказати результат дії.

They in fact have detected something unusual.

Skeptics have attacked previous results for their lack of statistical rigour.

Скептики критикували попередні результати за недостатню суворість з погляду статистики.

By the time the arm of the loop has completed half a revolution it is sweeping past a south magnetic pole.

У той час коли контакт контуру завершує півоберту, він проходить вздовж південного полюсу.

Present Perfect ніколи не використовується, якщо вказано, коли відбулась дія за допомогою таких слів, як yesterday, last week, at five o’clock, an hour ago і так далі. В цьому випадку використовують форму Past Simple. Однак при цьому слід пам’ятати, що зі словами, що позначають період часу, який ще не закінчився (today, this week, this month и т.д.), може використовуватися Present Perfect: Have you read the newspaper today? В той же час з такими словами часто використовується і Past Simple, при цьому розуміється, що подія відбулася в той період, який вже завершився: I got up early today (мається на увазі, що я прокинувся вранці, але вже день).

З прислівниками lately (за останній час) и just (щойно) практично завжди використовується Present Perfect (принаймні у Великій Британії).

I’ve just seen him.

З прислівником just now, який також позначає тільки що, використовується Past Simple: I saw him just now.

Дуже часто Present Perfect використовується з такими прислівниками невизначеного часу, як ever, never, often, already, yet.

He hasn’t finished his work yet.

Розглянута функція Present Perfect звичайно відповідає минулому часу нашої мови (дія відбулась).

Інша функція Present Perfect – позначення дії, яка почалася в минулому і триває зараз:

He has been here since two o’clock. – Він є тут з другої години.

В цьому випадку під час перекладу використовується теперішній час нашої мови. Present Perfect фактично виконує функцію Present Perfect Progressive. Це пов’язано з тим, що дієслово to be (в функції смислового, а не допоміжного дієслова), поряд з дієсловами, що відбивають почуття та сприйняття (know, see, love і так далі), не використовується в формі Progressive.

Під час перекладу багатьох дієслів, що виражають тривалу дію (стан) – live, study, work, teach і т. д., функції Present Perfect і Present Perfect Progressive практично збігаються:

He has been living here since April. = He has lived here since April.

Він мешкає тут з квітня.

Однак в першому випадку увага переважно акцентується на тривалості дії, а в іншому на самому факті його здійснення.

У випадку дієслів, які відображають якусь разову дію (kill, close, bring, take і так далі) використання та переклад форм Perfect і Progressive суттєво відрізняються. Форма Progressive зазвичай показує, що дієслово використовується у переносному сенсі, часто у складі ідіоматичного звороту:

The powerful blast has killed several animals. – Потужний вибух вбив декількох тварин.

I’ve walked miles and my feet are killing me. – Я пройшов так багато, що ніг під собою не відчуваю.

Present Perfect Progressive може також використовуватися для вираження тривалої дії, яка розпочалася в минулому, та закінчилася безпосередньо перед моментом мовлення:

Although the sun is shining, it is still cold as it has been raining hard.

Ще холодно, хоча й світить сонце, тому що йшов сильний дощ.

В цьому випадку під час перекладу, як і для Present Perfect, використовується минулий час.

Exercise 1. Use the following verbs in sentences of your own. Employ different verb tenses.

Example: I have been here since April. Kyiv is in Ukraine.

Come, go, predict, calculate, fly, conduct, process.

Exercise 2. Give appropriate forms of the verbs in brackets.

Example: I _didn’t play _ (not play) basketball well before I entered the club.

1. Nick is a student. He _________ (already/be) a student for four months.

2. I _________ (never/work) with this model of computer.

3. During our vacation the weather ________ (be) terrible.

4. Peter graduated the school four years ago. I _______ (never/meet) him.

5. John lives in Phoenix. He ______ (live) there all his life.

6. William lived and died in London. He ________ (live) there all his life.

Комунікативна практика

Характеризування предметів

Описуючи предмети, ми використовуємо різні прикметники та прислівники або інші слова, що виконують їх роль. Подивимось, для прикладу, як ми можемо охарактеризувати новий комп’ютер та його роботу:

I’ve got a new modern computer. It works fast and effectively. It is equipped with all the necessary peripheral devices that allow me to use it for my work as well as for entertainment. It has two high speed processors that perform more than 10 billion operations per second. Its casing made of wood and metal looks great and attracts the sight of anyone who comes into my room.

Для отримання інформації про предмет ми використовуємо різні типи спеціальних питань, що починаються словами how (big, long, fast …), what/which (colour, weight …), who, whose і т. д.

Exercise 1. Play a guessing game. Ask your classmate as many questions as possible to get information about an object or a phenomenon.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

When objects are connected in series, the electric current flows through them against the resistance of the first object, then against the resistance of the next object, and so on. Therefore the total resistance to the current is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. If three objects with resistances R₁, R₂, and R₃ are connected in series, their total resistance is R₁ + R₂ + R₃. For example, if a motor with a resistance of 48 ohms is connected to the terminals of a current source by two wires, each with a resistance of 1 ohm, the total resistance of the motor and wires is 48 + 1 + 1 = 50 ohms. If the voltage is 100 volts, a current of 100/50 = 2 amp will flow through the circuit.

Voltage can be thought of as being used up by the objects in a circuit. The voltage that each object uses up is called the voltage drop across that object. Voltage drop can be calculated from the equation V = IR, where V is the voltage drop across the object, I is the amount of current, and R is the resistance of the object.

In the example of the motor, the voltage drop in each wire is V = IR = 2 × 1 = 2 volts, and the voltage drop in the motor is 2 × 48 = 96 volts. Adding up the voltage drops (2 + 2 + 96) gives a total drop of 100 volts. If various objects are connected to form separate paths between the terminals of a source of electric current, they are said to be connected in parallel.

The total resistance of objects connected in parallel is less than that of any of the individual resistances. This is because a parallel circuit offers more than one branch (path) for the electric current, whereas a series circuit has only one path for all the current.

The electric current through a parallel circuit is distributed among the branches according to the resistances of the branches. If each branch has the same resistance, then the current in each will be equal. If the branches have different resistances, the current in each branch can be determined from the equation I = V/R, where I is the amount of current in the branch, V is the voltage, and R is the resistance.

The greater the resistance of a given branch, the smaller the portion of the electric current flowing through that branch. If a parallel circuit of three branches, with resistances of 10, 15, and 30 ohms, is connected to a 150-volt source, the branch with a resistance of 10 ohms would receive a current of V/R = 150/10 = 15 amp.

Exercise 2. Pretend that you are a master in electricity and you are going to show the ropes for some beginners in an office. Make notes about safe treating common office and household electrical instruments.

Exercise 3. Use the proper forms of the verbs (perfect or perfect continuous):

1. Look! Somebody ________ (steel) my purse.

2. I ___________ preparing letters for our clients. I ___________ (finish) four of them and there are two more to write.

3. I ________ (read) the thesis you gave me to check but I still _______ (not/finish) them yet.

4. My friend is a writer, he _____________ several books and plays.

5. When are you going to come? I _________ (already/wait) for an hour.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Calculate the current that flows in a simple unbranched circuit consisted of two batteries of 1.5V and light bulb with a resistance of 1. Internal resistance of each battery is 1. Explain your actions during calculations. Write down and then read math formula.

Exercise 2. Work with a partner or in a small group. Take the notes you made earlier (page 78, exercise 2) and instruct your classmate how to treat safely some electric instrument or appliance.

Exercise 3. Skim during 5-7 minutes the text below and answer the questions about it content.

An alternating current is an electric current that changes direction at regular intervals. When a conductor is moved back and forth in a magnetic field, the flow of current in the conductor will reverse direction as often as the physical motion of the conductor reverses direction. Most electric power stations supply electricity in the form of alternating currents. The current flows first in one direction, builds up to a maximum in that direction, and dies down to zero. It then immediately starts flowing in the opposite direction, builds up to a maximum in that direction, and again dies down to zero. Then it immediately starts in the first direction again. This surging back and forth can occur at a very rapid rate.

Two consecutive surges, one in each direction, are called a cycle. The number of cycles completed by an electric current in one second is called the frequency of the current. In the United States and Canada, most currents have a frequency of 60 cycles per second.

The strength, or amperage, of an alternating current varies continuously between zero and a maximum. Since it is inconvenient to take into account a whole range of amperage values, scientists simply deal with the effective amperage. Like a direct current, an alternating current produces heat as it passes through a conductor. The effective amperage of an alternating current is equal to the amperage of a direct current that produces heat at the same rate. In other words, one effective amp of alternating current through a conductor produces heat at the same rate as one amp of direct current flowing through the same conductor. Similarly, the voltage of an alternating current is considered in terms of the effective voltage.

Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes. In addition, however, various effects produced by the alternating current itself hinder the alternating current. These effects depend on the frequency of the current and on the design of the circuit, and together they are called reactance. The total hindering effect on an alternating current is called impedance. It is equal to the resistance plus the reactance.

1. What are the properties of an electric current?

2. How big is the frequency of industrial alternating current?

3. What is a shape of a diagram of intensity of common alternating current as a function of time?

4. How different is a resistance of the same section of the circuit to alternating and direct currents.

5. What is the common equivalent to the term “cycle per second” in this country?

Граматичні відомості

Пасивний стан (Passive Voice)

Пасивний стан використовується для характеризування об’єкта (предмета чи особи), який піддається зовнішньому впливу:

The planets are attracted by the sun.

Планети притягуються Сонцем.

I was invited to the party.

Я запрошений на вечірку.

У пасивному стані особа чи річ, що є об’єктом впливу, пригортають більше уваги, ніж у випадку активного стану, стоять на першому місці та виконують функцію підмета речення. Порівняємо два речення з близьким змістом:

Активний стан
Підмет/Subject	Присудок/Predicate	Додаток/Object
The potential Потенціал	moves рухає	electrons. електрони.

Пасивний стан
Підмет/Subject	Присудок/Predicate	Додаток/Object
Electrons Електрони	are moved рухаються	by the potential. потенціалом.

Пасивні звороти вживаються, коли взагалі нема потреби згадувати особу, що виконує дію:

Most of electric power is produced at big industrial plants.

В технічних текстах, де звичайно фігурують об’єкти та явища, які зазнають зовнішнього впливу, форми пасивного стану надзвичайно поширені. Різноманітні форми пасивного стану утворюються за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be у відповідному часі та смислового дієслова в формі дієприкметника минулого часу Participle II. При зміні часу змінюється лише допоміжне дієслово to be, а форма смислового дієслова завжди однакова (табл. 7):

Таблиця 7

Форми Passive Voice

	Simple			Progressive			Perfect
P r e s e n t	I you we they he she it	am are is	attacked	I you we they he she it	am are is	being attacked	I you we they he she it	have has	been attacked
P a s t	I he she it	was		I he she it	was		I he she it	had
	you we they	were		you we they	were		you we they

Форма Passive Perfect Progressive теоретично можлива, але в зв’язку з надзвичайною складністю (три допоміжні дієслова підряд: have been being + Past Participle) вона практично не використо­вується. Зазвичай в цій функції використовують Present і Past Perfect:

The plan had been discussed for two hours, when he came.

Коли він прийшов, план вже обговорювався дві години.

В розмовній мові для утворення Passive Voice також часто використовується сполучення to get + Past Participle:

She got bitten by a dog.

ЇЇ вкусив собака. (Вона була вкушена собакою).

Часи пасивного стану використовуються за такими ж правилами, що й відповідні форми активного. Розглянемо декілька характерних прикладів:

The crystal potential is taken as the sum of the potentials of the individual atoms.

Потенціал кристала береться як сума потенціалів окремих атомів (пояснення процедури).

Huge strides in the understanding of surface phenomena were made in a very short time.

Великі кроки щодо розуміння поверхневих явищ було зроблено за дуже короткий час (опис подій в минулому).

The one-dimensional models considered in the previous subsection have been extended by various workers.

Одномірні моделі, розглянуті в попередньому розділі, набули подальшого розвитку в роботах різних дослідників (має значення лише результат дії, а не її конкретний час).

Then, if improbable statistic values occur repeatedly and systematically, we can infer that something unusual is being found, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

Далі, якщо неймовірні статистичні величини з’являються повторно та систематично, ми можемо зробити висновок, що дійсно спостерігається щось незвичайне, що суперечить нуль-гіпотези [підкреслюється тривалий характер дії].

Exercise 1. Change the Active to the Passive.

Example: The potential moves the particle.  The particle is moved by the potential.

The potential moves the particles.

The potential is moving the particle.

The potential has moved the particle.

The potential has been moving the particle.

The potential moved the particle.

The potential was moving the particle.

The potential had moved the particle.

The potential is going to move the particle.

Exercise 2. Fill the blanks with a verb from the box using its Past Participle form. Use each verb only once.

give, detect, measure, think, base, send, employ

The presence of an electric current in a circuit may be _______ and its strength may be _________ by a number of different methods, each method being ________ upon some effect which the current produces under given conditions.

These programs are useful because they can be ______ to a user quickly in a case of trouble.

Particular care should be ________ to the correct connection of accumulators for charging.

About one million people are ______ in this brunch of industry.

Computers have often been _______ of as extremely complicated calculators, but this is a very simple standpoint.

Комунікативна практика

Висловлення думок. Пояснення причин

Listen to the conversation, then use it as a model to make up you own dialogue.

A: Hello, how are you?

B: Great! And how are you?

A: OK. We called you yesterday after classes, but no one answered.

B: I was probably cleaning my room when you called. You know my vacuum cleaner is so noisy!

A: Why didn’t you attend our last party?

B: I was so busy with my classes. I have such a huge test next Friday.

A: Well, speaking of classes, what do you think about our new teacher, what’s she like?

B: My friend knows her, because the teacher used to work in his school. She is very smart, but could be very demanding at times.

A: I think it could be only plus for us, because will make us work harder.

B: It’s the thought that counts.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 79-80 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Find out in the text sentences with Passive Voice. Change them into Active Voice changing meaning.

Exercise 3. Change Active to Passive whenever it possible.

1. They made this processor in South Korea.

2. Hackers stole confidential information from the database.

3. My plane arrives at 10:00.

4. When did Popov invent the radio?

5. Translator has transformed the program into machine codes.

6. Dinosaurs existed millions of years ago.

7. Prof. Nelson developed that theory.

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Make a draft of a simple electric circuit consisting of a source of voltage and a few of loads (appliances, instruments, etc.). Explain to your classmate how to calculate the properties of this circuit (resistance, current and power consumption).

Граматичні відомості

Пасивний стан: сполучення дієслова TO BE з діє­прикметником минулого часу

Сполучення різних часів дієслова to be з формою Past Participle смислового дієслова може виконувати різні функції і відповідно перекладатись українською мовою різними способами.

Якщо справа стосується дії, вищевказане сполучення є одним з форм пасивного стану, розглянутого під час попереднього уроку і, таким чином, відповідає простому присудку української мови:

New programs are loaded to the server by our system administrator.

Нові програми завантажуються в сервер нашим системним адміністратором.

Якщо не вказана особа, що виконує дію, то звичайно мається на увазі лише стан на теперішній час:

New programs are loaded.

Нові програми завантажені.

У випадку, коли мається на увазі, що стан на теперішній час є наслідком попередньої дії, в англійській мові часто використовується форма Present Perfect Passive:

New programs have been loaded.

При цьому переклад українською мовою лишається незмінним (як у попередньому випадку).

Таким чином, речення, в яких згадується тільки стан об’єкту на теперішній час перекладаються з української англійською мовою двома способами:

Лист написаний.

The letter is written. The letter has been written.

Робота зроблена.

The work is done. The work has been done.

Якщо чітко вказано про дію, яка відбувалась, про те хто цю дію виконував, використовуємо тільки Present Perfect Passive:

Лист написаний мною. The letter has been written by me.

Робота зроблена Петром. The work has been done by Peter.

Речення зі сполученням to be + Past Participle перекладаються іншим чином:

The letter is written by me. Лист пишеться мною. (Я пишу листа.)

The work is done by Peter. Робота робиться Петром. (Петро ро-

бить цю роботу.)

Якщо у сполученні to be + Past Participle використовуються форми дієслова to be минулого та майбутнього часу, тобто was/were та will be, це відповідає українським був/були та буде:

The work was done when I came. The work had been done when I came.	Коли я прийшов, робота була зроблена.
The letter will be written when he comes.1 The letter will have been written when he comes.	Коли він прийде, лист буде написаний.

Аналогічно вищесказаному:

The work was done by me yesterday. – Вчора я виконував цю роботу.

The work had been done by me yesterday. – Вчора робота вже була зроблена мною.

The letter will be written by me tomorrow. – Завтра я буду писати цього листа.

The letter will have been written by me tomorrow. – Я напишу цього листа завтра.

Інколи, зазвичай у розмовній мові, у сполученнях, що показують стан особи, чи предмета замість to be + Past Participle використовується сполучення get + Past Participle:

I got tired. = I am tired.

Nobody got hurt. = Nobody was hurt.

Did he get invited? = Was he invited?

Для проміжного (перехідного) стану інколи вживається get у формі Continuous:

I’m getting tired, I need a rest.

Exercise 1. Fill in each blank with suitable form of the verb from brackets. Discuss with your teacher when it is possible to use “get” instead of “be”.

1. My computer doesn’t work. It __________. (break)

2. Peter is looking for a new job. He __________ with his present salary. (satisfy)

3. Excuse me madam, it seems I _____________. I was wondering if you could tell me how can I get a bus to the station. (loose)

4. _______ you _____________ with Prof. Green? Have you ever met him? (acquaint)

5. Table salt ___________ of sodium and chlorine. (make)

6. Poor cat. It _____________ and killed by a car. (run over)

7. He _____________ in Kyiv. (bear)

8. There was an earthquake, but fortunately nobody _________ . (hurt)

Exercise 2. Read the text and find different forms of Passive Voice. Explain their usage and meaning.

A Daniell cell consists of metallic zinc immersed in a solution of zinc sulfate and metallic copper immersed in a solution of copper sulfate, the zinc being charged negatively and the copper positively. On joining the two metals, or poles, of this cell by a wire, the temperature of the wire rises. If the wire is cut and its ends then are attached to the two small squares of platinum foil which are then immersed in a solution of copper sulfate, red metallic copper is deposited on one of the pieces of foil. These phenomena indicate that something takes place in the wire joining the poles of Daniell cell – a current of electricity is said to flow through the wire. Since a magnetic needle placed above the wire that is being connected to the poles of Daniell cell is always deflected in the same direction, and since copper is always deposited on the piece of platinum foil being connected to the zinc pole, we may infer that the current flows in a definite direction. The direction of the current has been arbitrarily defined as the direction in which the positive current would have to flow in order to produce observed magnetic effects. It has been found that the weight of copper deposited upon the platinum foil in a given time is less, when the length of the wire joining the poles of the Daniel cell is increased. It would appear, therefore, that the resistance to the flow of the electric current through the wire is augmented by increasing its length.

When two Daniell cells are connected in series by joining the zinc pole of one to the copper pole of the other, then, on attaching a piece of platinum foil to the other pole of each cell and immersing them in a solution of copper sulfate, it is found that the weight of copper deposited on the foil, in a given time, is twice as great as when only one cell is employed, i.e. a greater current of electricity flows through the wire. In some way this combination of the two cells increases the electrical pressure of force – electromotive force (E) – which drives the electric current through the circuit. The current strength varies directly as this electrical pressure of electromotive force.

Exercise 3. Use either active or passive, in any appropriate tense, for the verb in parentheses. If you use passive you have to add auxiliary into write place.

Read-only Memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific data when it (manufacture). ROM chips (use) not only in computers, but in most other electronic items as well. Data stored in these chips is nonvolatile – it not (lose) when power (remove).

Carl Gauss (recognize) as a mathematical genius when he was ten. One day a teacher gave him an arithmetic problem. Carl (ask) to add up all the numbers from 1 to 100 (1 + 2 + 3, etc.). It (take) him a few seconds to solve the problem. How was he able to do it so quickly? He (know) that each pair of numbers with the equal distance from the beginning or from the end of sequence (1 + 100, 2 + 99, 3 + 98…) equaled 101. So he (multiply) 50x101 and (come) up with the result: 5,050.

Комунікативна практика

Спонукання людей до виконання дій: наказ, прохання, домовленість

Exercise 1. Listen to short conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.

Report back to me in an hour, sergeant. – Yes, sir.

Bob, would you please type these letters? And use my printer. It works better. – Of course, Mr. Adams.

Maria, could you help me fix the printer that’s on Mr. Adam’s desk? – Sure.

I’d like to speak to Mr. Adams, please. This is Mr. Smith, Johnson’s Accounting. – Maria speaking. I’m sorry Mr. Adams isn’t at his desk at the moment. Can I take a message? – Yes, Maria, please tell him I returned his call. And tell him I want to see him. He knows my phone. He can call any time. – I’ll make sure he takes the message. – Thank you.

Bob, got some change? I need make a call to Lucy. – Sure.

Exercise 2. Engage your classmates in short conversations using Exercise 1 as a model.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 88-89 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Use the following combinations of words in sentences of your own. Use either Active or Passive form.

To make an approach, to make calculations, to make a conclusion, to make a contribution (to), to make a discovery, to make an experiment, to make an impression, to make an investigation, to make a list, to make measurements, to make a mistake, to make a suggestion, to make a summary, to make use (of).

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Listen to the text while reading. Discuss it with your classmates using the questions after the text.

Contact with electrical current is potentially fatal. Electricity passing through the body can cause injury to the skin and internal organs. If electricity passes through the heart, the heart muscle may be damaged and the heart’s rhythm interrupted, leading to cardiac arrest. The signs and symptoms of electric shock include tingling, burns on the skin where the current entered or exited, muscle pain, headache, loss of consciousness, irregular breathing or lack of breathing, and cardiac arrest. The severity of the injury depends on the strength of the electric current and the path the current takes through the body. The person providing first aid to a victim of electric shock should not touch the individual’s body until the source of the shock is turned off. Because of the potential for internal injuries, victims of electrical injury should not be moved unless they are in immediate danger. The first-aid provider should monitor the victim for symptoms of shock. If the victim has stopped breathing and has no pulse, CPR should be performed after the airway, breathing, and circulation have been checked. When the victim’s vital signs are stable, the site of the burn should be treated using the same methods used for other burns.

CPR = cardiopulmonary resuscitation – штучне дихання

to loose consciousness – втрачати свідомість

cardiac arrest – зупинка серця

tingling – дрижання

1. Do you agree with all the facts stated in the text?

2. What does the harmful action of an electric current depend on?

3. How is it possible to protect human body against electric current?

4. Why grounding of metal parts of electric instruments is important?

5. What are the symptoms of electric shock?

6. What is the first aid in a case of electric shock?

Граматичні відомості

Особливості пасивного стану в англійській мові

Суттєвою відмінністю використання пасивного стану в англійській мові у порівнянні з українською є більш широкі можливості утворення пасивних конструкцій, аналогів яким в українській мові нема.

Як приклад, розглянемо речення у активному стані, в якому в підмета є не один, а два додатки:

ПідметSubject	Дієслово Verb	Непрямий додаток Indirect Object	Прямий додаток Direct Object
He Він	told сказав	me мені	the news. новину.

В українській мові ми можемо створити лише одне пасивне речення з відповідним змістом, в якому як підмет використовується прямий додаток “новина” (відповідає на питання “що?”):

Мені була розказана новина (ним). The news was told me (by him).

Однак в англійській мові і непрямий додаток “me”, який відповідає на питання “whom/кому?”, може виконувати роль підмета у пасивному реченні:

I was told the news (by him).

До речі, така конструкція, де особа стоїть на першому місці, значно більш характерна та вживана в англійській мові, ніж “The news was told me”. В українській мові подібних зворотів нема.

Звичайно, подібні конструкції вживаються з іншими часами англійської мови, наприклад:

We are being given a new course right now.

We have just been given a new course.

Ще один приклад пасивних конструкцій англійської мови, які неможливі в українській мові, це структури з неперехідними дієсловами та прийменниковими непрямими додатками, що відповідають на питання типу “на кого?”, “над ким?, “для кого?” і т. д. Декілька прикладів:

He was sent for. За ним послали.

The professor was listened to attentively. Професора уважно слухали.

This article is often referred to. На цю статтю часто посилаються.

The new bestseller is very much spoken of. Про новий бестселер дуже багато говорять.

Речення такого типу перекладаються українською мовою зворотами з невизначеною особою, як показано вище.

Як бачимо, у другому з наведених прикладів використовується дієслово слухати (to listen). В англійській мові це дієслово неперехідне, тобто у активному стані воно вимагає прямого доповнення і потребує наступного прийменника “to”. В українському перекладі дієслово слухати використовується як перехідне, тобто без прийменника.

Навпаки, деякі перехідні англійські дієслова відповідають неперехідним українським, наприклад:

to answer (somebody) to follow (something) to join (someone) to watch (somebody)

відповідати (на щось) слідувати (за кимсь) приєднуватись (до когось) спостерігати (за кимсь)

Згідно з цим, англійські пасивні конструкції з такими дієсловами передаються зворотами без використання пасивного стану, наприклад:

Your help is needed. – Потрібна ваша допомога.

They were soon joined by their friends. – Невдовзі до них приєднались друзі.

The reaction is followed by an explosion. – Реакція супроводжується вибухом.

Звороти з використанням пасивних конструкцій

Для англійської мови надзвичайно характерне використання конструкцій з формальним підметом it. Зокрема зворот it з формою пасивного стану часто використовується з дієсловами to report, to know, to say, to believe, etc., відповідаючи зворотам української мови з невизначеною особою:

It is reported that new engine’s performance exceeded our expectations.

Повідомляють, що характеристики нового двигуна перевищили наші очікування.

It is well-known that Ukraine has rich deposits of manganese ore.

Добре відомо, що Україна має багаті родовища марганцевої руди.

За наявністю у подібних зворотах слова as (як) займенник it зникає:

As is believed the conference members will arrive in Kyiv on Monday.

Як вважають, учасники конференції прибудуть до Києва у понеділок.

Згадані звороти, що є складнопідрядними реченнями, часто замінюються простими реченнями з використанням інфінітива, які мають такий самий зміст:

New engine’s performance is reported to exceed our expectation.

They are believed to arrive in Kyiv on Monday.

Більш докладно подібні звороти будуть розглянуті далі у розділі, присвяченому інфінітивним конструкціям.

Exercise 1. Use Passive Voice in the following sentences.

The police have given him a ticket for driving recklessly. – He has been given a ticket for driving recklessly.

1. They pay him twice a month. – He _____________________.

2. My colleagues showed me some interesting materials. – I ______________________.

3. Some teachers are teaching him English at school. – He _______________________.

4. We can depend on this man. – This man ______________________.

5. They agreed upon the terms of the contract. – The terms _____________________.

6. The personal of the hospital well take care of patients. – The patients _____________.

7. They didn’t ask me about this. – I ___________________.

8. They will send you your test results as soon as possible. – You _________________.

Exercise 2. Translate from Ukrainian into English.

1. Над ним сміялися

2. Її слухали неуважно.

3. Нам прочитають цю лекцію до того, як він поїде з Києва.

4. Його щойно відпустили. (to release)

5. Зараз нам читають новий курс.

6. Коли він прийшов, нам показували новий фільм.

Комунікативна практика

Поради

Існує декілька способів вираження поради. Найпростіший – це пряма порада з використанням модальних дієслів should, would, ought (to):

You’d better… You should … You ought to …

Однак вважається, що в багатьох ситуаціях пряма порада може здатися недостатньо ввічливою, тому в англійській мові частіше використовуються непрямі поради:

I believe it might be a good idea to …

Don’t you think it would be better …

If I were you I’d …

Exercise 1. Listen to the following conversation, identify the sentences with advice.

A: What seems to be the trouble?

B: My computer doesn’t work properly. I can’t run my program and colours on the screen look unusual.

A: Is any antivirus program installed on your computer?

B: Unfortunately I didn’t do it. I don’t have enough experience in computer technologies.

A: You don’t? If I were you I’d take some course for beginners. Nowadays if you are working with Internet you never know when you’ll have an emergency.

B: Well, anyway, what can I do right now?

A: Mm … Let me see … What did you do with your computer last time?

B: I played a new game …

A: Oh why don’t you try to restart the system? Sometimes it works.

B: Well, wait a minute … Oh, great! It works! Thanks a lot.

A: Don’t mention it.

Exercise 2. Discuss possibilities where would you advise your classmate to spend his/her vacations.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

Since the late 20th century the most developed world countries became keenly aware of their dependence on foreign oil and other fossil fuels. Exploitation of solar power is a feasible alternative to fossil-based energy sources. Electricity can be generated by a variety of technologies that ultimately depend on the effects of solar radiation. Windmills and waterfalls (themselves very old sources of mechanical energy) can be used to turn turbines to generate electricity. The energies of wind and falling water are considered forms of solar energy, because the Sun’s heating power creates wind and replenishes the water in rivers and streams. Most existing windmill installations are relatively small, containing ten or more windmills in a grid configuration that takes advantage of wind shifts. In contrast, most electricity from hydroelectric installations comes from giant dams. Large-scale hydroelectric projects are still being pursued in many developing countries. The simplest form of solar-powered electricity generation is the use of an array of collectors that heat water to produce steam to turn a turbine. Several of these facilities are in existence.

Other sources of Sun-derived electricity involve high-technology options that remain unproven commercially on a large scale. Photovoltaic cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, are currently being used for remote locations to power orbiting space satellites, local power plants, and irrigation pumps. Progress is needed to lower costs before widespread use of photovoltaic cells is possible. The commercial development of still other methods seems far in the future. Ocean thermal conversion (OTC) generates electricity on offshore platforms; a turbine is turned by the power generated when cold seawater moves from great depths up to a warm surface. Also still highly speculative is the notion of using space satellites to beam electricity via microwaves down to Earth.

Exercise 2. Make notes about different possibilities to overcome world energy crisis. Be ready to discuss modern researches in a field of renewable energy sources taking into account issues of environmental pollution and global warming. Prepare short oral reports (around 5 minutes) for these topics.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to different applications of electricity in industry and at home.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Нижче наведені типові приклади завдань, що можуть бути використані під час тренування перед письмовим тестом.

Exercise 1. Insert the proper forms of the verbs in brackets. Add auxiliary or/and modal verb if necessary.

1. The program _____ (already /write) by him.

2. This textbook ____ (write) last year by Prof Jones.

3. I ___ (never/read) this book.

4. I _______ (brake) this pencil yesterday.

5. I ________(read) the newspaper when he came in.

6. Meet me at five o’clock. I’ll _____ (look out) for you.

7. If the weather _______(be fine) tomorrow we will go to the park.

Exercise 2. Change the Active to the Passive if possible.

1. We may obtain a supply of current from various kinds of voltaic cells.

2. The operators calibrate the meter to read their indications.

3. Series and parallel circuits are the most important from the practical point of view.

4. Students asked the teacher to explain the math expression.

5. He arrives tomorrow at 6 a.m.

6. The movement of the magnetic field induces an alternating current in the secondary coil.

7. These effects depend on the frequency of the current.

Exercise 3. Change the Passive to the Active Voice without changing of meaning.

1. The production of heat by an electric current is widely used.

2. Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes.

3. This book is often referred to.

4. The students had been examined for two hours when he came.

5. Don’t forget that the plan will be discussed tomorrow at 5 p.m. when you will be driving to Chicago.

6. These effects depend on the frequency of the current and on the design of the circuit, and together they are called reactance.

7. They were granted a loan.

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps in sentences using the terms of module 2.

1. The electric current through a _____________ circuit is distributed among the branches according to the resistances of the branches.

2. An __________ current is an electric current that changes direction at regular intervals.

3. Like direct current, alternating current is hindered by the __________ of the conductor through which it passes.

4. Current sources may be arranged in parallel by connecting all the positive ___________ together and all the negative terminals together.

5. There are many _________ of electric current other than generators and electrolytic _________.

6. A good conductor is one that has low _________.

7. Substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them are called ________, non-conductors, or dielectrics.

Exercise 5. Paraphrase/give the synonyms to the words below.

Example: Electric current – a flow of charges.

1. Alternating current.

2. Resistance.

3. Electric circuit.

4. Voltmeter.

5. Generator.

6. Grounding.

7. Positive charge.

Exercise 6. Correct grammar mistakes in the following sentences. Each sentence has at least one mistake.

1. The part of an electric circuit other than the source of electric current called the load.

2. Like direct current, alternating current have hindered by the resistance of the conductor through which it passes.

3. The alternating current supply the greatest part of the elec­tric power for industry today.

4. I will be give you an answer in a week.

5. I was driven home yesterday when I saw her.

6. If the weather will be fine we will go to the park.

7. A great number of students has attending the lecture.

Exercise 7. Use the following words in sentences in your own:

cell, circuit, nucleus, coil, meter, ammeter, insulator.

Module 3. TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text. Find out the meaning of the words you don’t understand.

The transistor is a common term for a number of solid-state electronic devices which are used as active components of electronic circuit. It may be used as an amplifier, detector or switch. The transistor is capable to perform many of functions of its precursor, the vacuum tube, but it is more reliable, more flexible, and smaller in size, and it consumes less electricity. So it has almost entirely replaced the vacuum tube in electronic devices. Its application ranges from small radios to the most sophisticated space probes. The transistor revolutionized both electronic communication and computation.

The simplest transistor consists of three layers of different semiconducting materials. Common semiconductors (silicon, germa­nium or gallium arsenide) have a perfectly regular diamond-cubic lattice that acts, at low temperatures, as an insulator. If small amounts of impurities with different valence structure are added to pure semiconductor that improves its conductivity. For example, doping tetravalent silicon with quinquevalent phosphorus gives an excess of electrons and provides a conductivity of n- (negative) type. When atoms of trivalent boron are substituted for some of the silicon atoms, each captures one electron from a neighboring silicon atom, leaving an empty space, or hole. Such holes behave as though they were freely moving particles with a positive charge, and thus they also serve to increase the silicon’s conductivity. Such doped material is of p- (positive) type. In the so-called n-p-n type transistor, the first part, called the emitter, is doped to give it an excess of negative charges; the second, the base, is doped to give it excess positive charges; and the third, the collector, is doped to give it an excess of negative charges.

The voltage applied between the emitter and collector is fixed and relatively high, while the voltage between the emitter and the base is low and variable – it is the incoming signal. When there is no base voltage, the resistance from the emitter to the collector is high, and no current flows. A small voltage across the base to the emitter, however, lowers the resistance and allows a large output current to flow from emitter to collector. The transistor thus acts as a signal amplifier.

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the equipment’s sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined different electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit more and more components on a single chip. As a result, instruments and machines like computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip.

amplification amplifier arsenide base collector detector emitter impurity incoming integrated circuit lattice output

підсилення підсилювач арсенід база колектор випрямляч емітер домішка вхідний інтегральна схема решітка вихідний

quartz rock quinquevalent semiconductor solid switch transistor (transfer + resistor) vacuum tube valence to dope to squeeze

кварц (мінерал) п’ятивалентний напівпровідник твердий перемикач транзистор радіолампа валентність модифікувати втискувати

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What are the modern applications of transistors?

2. How did the quartz rock revolutionize electronics?

3. What are the names of contacts in a common transistor?

4. Which semiconductors are most commonly used in electronics?

5. What is the mechanism of amplification of electric current with transistor?

6. What types of transistors do you know?

7. Who and when invented the IC?

Exercise 3. Give synonyms to the following words:

gadget, complex (adjective), constituent, isolator, valve, adjacent, impedance, able to be changed, progress, input, quantity, substance, with five valences.

Граматичні відомості

Модальні дієслова

На відміну від повнозначних або смислових дієслів, модальні дієслова (Modal Verbs) виражають не дію або стан, а наше до них ставлення: personal attitude. За допомогою цих дієслів виражається необхідність (necessity), імовірність-можливість (probability-possibility), очікування (expectation), дозвіл-заборону (permission-prohibition), порада (advice). Крім того, ці дієслова здатні виражати ступінь інтенсивності, відтінки цього відношення, імовірності тієї чи іншої події зараз, в минулому та майбутньому. Модальні дієслова ніколи не використовуються самостійно, а тільки з інфінітивом смислового дієслова, причому цей інфінітив для всіх модальних дієслів, окрім ought, використовується без to:

I can do it. – Я можу зробити це.

You ought to go there. – Тобі слід піти туди.

Модальні дієслова є недостатніми, оскільки вони не мають всіх тих форм, які мають інші дієслова. У всіх модальних дієслів відсутні форми Participle I і Participle II, а також інфінітив та герундій, багато з них не мають і форми Past. Цей пробіл компенсується тим, що багато з модальних дієслів мають еквівалентні дієслівні сполучення (табл. 8).

Слід одразу зробити застереження, що практично кожне модальне дієслово має досить широкий спектр значень та відтінків, для більш широкого знайомства з якими читачеві треба звернутися до літератури зі списку, наведеного наприкінці цього посібника.

Модальні дієслова часто комбінуються з формою Perfect смислового дієслова, виражаючи думку співрозмовника щодо події, яка в дійсності не відбулась (або не мала відбутися, але відбулась):

You should have helped him (повинні допомогти, хоча ви цього не зробили).

You could have told me earlier (могли б сказати мені раніше).

Таблиця 8

Еквіваленти модальних дієслів

Modal verb	Uses	Past form	Equivalent*
will can may must** ought to, should*** shall	future, willingness, polite request, wish (would like), repeated action ability, possibility, permission, polite request (informal) permission (formal), request (with “I”) necessity, prohibition (negative) advisability, necessity polite question, intention, warning, future with “I” and “we”	would could might – – should	be going to be able to be allowed to have (got) to had better be going to

*тільки для частини значень;

**в запитальних та негативних реченнях поряд з must використо-вується дієслово need;

***формально should є формою минулого часу дієслова shall, останнє, однак, в цьому значенні практично не використовується.

Практично всі модальні дієслова можуть виражати ступінь імовірності (certainty) тієї чи іншої події. Якщо розташувати дієслова в порядку зростання імовірності (від 20-30 % до 100 %), ми отримаємо приблизно таку послідовність:

might, may, could < should, ought to, would < must, be going to, will.

Класична ілюстрація подібної послідовності наведена в багатьох посібниках з граматики, виданих в США та Великій Британії:

• There’s a knock at the door. Who you suppose it is?

• В двері стукають. Як ви гадаєте, хто це?

It might be Sally.

It may be Sally.

It could be Sally.

It’s going to be Sally. – І так далі.

Особливим чином перекладаються сполучення дієслова can з наступним перфектним інфінітивом у негативних та питальних реченнях:

Can he have said that? – Невже він це сказав?

He can’t have said that. – Не може бути, щоб він це сказав.

Модальні дієслова ніколи не використовуються безпосередньо одне за іншим, хоча сполучення модального дієслова з еквівалентом іншого модального дієслова є звичайним явищем:

If this is possible, the opponent may be able to solve all of the parts far easier than the supposedly complex whole. – Якщо це можливо, опонент мабуть зможе вирішити задачу не загалом, а частинами, що зрозуміло є більш простим.

Exercise 1. Insert modal verbs the best suited with words in brackets.

A poor understanding of the requirements can lead to implementing a complicated architecture that ______ (be, not) necessary.

Back doors are much more common than you _______ (think).

Before the firewall software is installed, the operating system ______ (harden).

To prevent spoofing, public keys ______ (authenticate, or validate, or certificate) as representing who they claim to represent. This ____ (be) almost as difficult as the conventional key distribution problem and generally requires complex protocols.

This is Steve’s laptop, isn’t it? – It (be, not) _______ his. He doesn’t have a laptop computer, at least not that I know of. It (belong) ________ to Lucy or to Linda.

Exercise 2. Give examples of polite questions, requests and offers using the modal verbs: would, should, could, will, shall, can, and may.

Комунікативна практика

Інструктування, перевірка розуміння

Listen to the conversation.

Nick: Ann, could you help me?

Ann: With pleasure. And what seems to be the trouble?

Nick: I can’t turn your CD player on. It looks like computer. I’ve never seen such model.

Ann: Oh, it’s Japanese. It looks a little bit sophisticated, but, as a matter of fact, very easy to use.

Nick: How does it work?

Ann: Well, first thing you have to do is to plug it in. Push the ‘on’ button. You see the green lamp lights.

Nick: And how can I put the disk in?

Ann: You should press ‘eject’ button. You see how the cover opens. Then put the disk here and close the cover. Is that clear?

Nick: Aha… Yes, thank you.

Ann: Why don’t you try it yourself now? ... That’s right. Now you see the small display shines. You can press cursor buttons like those on computer’s keyboard to select an item in the menu. Then press ‘yes’ button to exit the menu. … Are you with me?

Nick: Yes. That’s great!

Як показано в прикладі, опис послідовності дій супроводжується зв’язками типу:

The first thing you do is …

Then you have to …

After you’ve done that …

Крім того, буває доцільно контролювати розуміння слухачем викладеного з використанням фраз розмовної мови:

Is it clear? OK so far? Got that?

Інколи буває необхідно застерегти слухача від неправильних дій:

Be careful not to press this button because… Make sure you remember… Don’t forget…

Exercise. Give your classmates instructions on how to use the following objects. Make sure if your partner understand your instruction.

Calculator, penknife, computer, photo camera, dictionary, fax machine, copier.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 100-101 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Use the following modal verbs in sentences of your own. Demonstrate various opportunities of these verbs to express ability, possibility, permission, advice, etc.

Will, would, shall, should, ought (to), may, might, can, could, must, need.

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences with appropriate modal verbs or their equivalents.

1. _____ I leave the class now, please. I’ve finished my work.

2. Why didn’t you answer the phone? – I (not) _______hear a phone ringing at that moment, I was in the bath.

3. Where are you going to spend your vacations? – I _______ go to my parents or I ___________ go camping.

4. You (not) _________ tell anyone of yesterday’s meeting. It’s a secret.

5. I (not) _________ work at weekends, but sometimes I do.

6. We have a plenty of paper, so you (not) _________ buy any more.

7. You _________ visit your granny, she really missed you.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What gives the transistor an advantage over the vacuum tube?

2. What does simple transistor consist of?

3. How is it possible to regulate semiconductors’ conductivity?

4. Why don’t we use for doping semiconductors such metals as copper or aluminium with loosely bounded electrons to stimulate n-type conductivity?

5. Do you know something about rectifiers on semiconductors? How do they work?

6. Which common household appliances and instruments use transistors and integrated circuits?

7. Why is low consumption of energy is so important for modern electronic equipment and devices?

Exercise 2. Insert the words the best suited to the sentences using the list below. Each of words in the list is used only once. Then listen and check your guesses.

Semiconductor materials may be divided into two _________ groups: intrinsic and extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor is chemically very pure, and its __________ is poor. Some common intrinsic semiconductors are single ________ of silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. These may be converted into the more useful extrinsic _____________ by the addition of small amounts of impurities. This process, known as doping, alters the ___________ properties of the semiconductor and _______ its conductivity.

For example, the atom of an intrinsic semiconductor such as _________ silicon has four electrons in its outermost shell. These electrons attach the ________ atom to its neighboring atoms and so are not free to move through the solid. Accordingly, since electric ________ relies on charge motion, pure silicon is a poor _________ of electricity. If arsenic atoms, with five outer electrons, are _________ for some of the silicon atoms, the fifth electron is not needed for binding to adjacent atoms and is free to move through the solid. Thus, ________ silicon with arsenic improves the silicon’s conductivity. On the other hand, if a silicon atom is _______ by an indium atom, which has three valence________, an electron is missing from one covalent bond, _______ an empty space, so-called hole. This hole can move about, just as the free electron could. A region with such indium ___________ is called p-type silicon because the holes act like carriers of positive charges, and thus they also serve to _________ the silicon’s conductivity. An extrinsic semiconductor is commonly _________ as n- or p-type, depending on whether the impurity added has an excess of negative charge (n-type) or a deficiency of negative _________ (p-type).

In the p-n-p type transistor, the first part, ___________ the emitter, is doped to give it an excess of positive charges; the second, the base, is doped to give it _______ negative charges; and the third, the collector, is doped like the first part to give it an excess of _________ charges.

substituted general classified leaving positive crystals conductivity excess electrical improves elemental silicon current conductor doping replaced electrons increase charge semiconductors called impurities
binding covalent extrinsic semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor	зв’язування (хімічне) ковалентний напівпровідник з власною провідністю напівпровідник з домішковою провідністю

Граматичні відомості

Модальні дієслова та майбутній час

Надзвичайно важливою функцією модальних дієслів є відображення за їх допомогою подій в майбутньому. В першу чергу це має відношення до дієслова will (would). В таблиці 9 розглянуто приклади використання will з різними аспектами (часами) смислового дієслова to study.

Ще в середині ХХ століття нормою англійської мови було використання з першою особою (I, we) не will, a shall, однак зараз таке використання набуває відтінку архаїзму.

Таблиця 9

Утворення форм майбутнього часу з модальним дієсловом will

Verb tenses	Приклад	Пояснення
Simple	He will study tomorrow.	Він буде вчитися завтра (разова подія в майбутньому).
Progressive	He will be studying at 5 o’clock.	Процес протягом певного періоду в майбутньому.
Perfect	He will already have studied chemistry before he starts* math.	Він вивчить хімію ще до того, як розпочне вчити математику (результат, завершення однієї дії до початку наступної).
Perfect Progressive	He will have been studying for an hour by the time we get home.	Процес з певною тривалістю в певний період у майбутньому.

*Зверніть увагу, що на відміну від нашої мови обставина часу before he starts використовується в теперішньому часі.

Якщо йдеться про майбутнє в контексті минулого часу (“майбутнє в минулому”), замість will/shall використовується форма минулого часу would/should:

He knew that she would return next week. – Він знав, що вона повернеться наступного тижня.

У певних ситуаціях для опису майбутнього можуть використовуватися також інші модальні дієслова:

We can settle it tomorrow. – Ми зможемо владнати це завтра.

Деякі труднощі в осіб, які вивчають англійську мову, виникають в зв’язку з тим, що форма дієслова would часто використовується в низці інших функцій. По-перше, вона виражає умовній спосіб, тобто перекладається дієсловом з часткою “би”):

In this situation, the absolute best sample we could hope to see would be something like (0,1,0,1,0,1,...), which would represent an even, balanced distribution over the range. – В цій ситуації найкращим з можливих варіантів може бути щось типу (0,1,0,1,0,1,...), що дало би однорідний збалансований розподіл в межах області.

По-друге, дієслово would (інколи також і will) використовується для відображення звичайних подій, що повторюються:

The worst part of this is that a successful attack of this type consumes few resources, need not ‘break’ the cipher itself, and may provide just the kind of white-collar desktop intelligence a bureaucracy would love. – Найгіршою стороною цього є те, що успішна атака подібного типу не потребує багатьох ресурсів, не передбачає “злому” пароля як такого, і може розглядатися всього лише як збір інформації в середовищі “білих комірців”, який так люблять бюрократи.

Наприкінці розглянемо ще декілька типових прикладів використання модальних дієслів:

The classic problem with passwords is that they must be remembered by ordinary people. – Класична проблема паролів полягає в тому, що їх повинні пам’ятати звичайні люди.

However, since the trials should have approximately a simple Poisson distribution (which has only a single parameter), we could be a bit more clever and fit the results to the expected distribution, thus perhaps developing a bit more accuracy. – Однак оскільки результати випробовувань мають приблизно відповідати простому розподілу Пуассона (котре має одиничний параметр), ми могли би бути трохи більш завбачливими і розташувати результати у відповідності з розподілом, який очікується, що, можливо, забезпечить дещо більшу точність.

Even if an organization is not connected to the Internet, it may still want to establish an internal security policy to manage user access to portions of the network and protect sensitive or secret information. – Навіть якщо організація не підключена до Інтернету, вона все ж таки може прагнути розробити внутрішню політику безпеки для керування доступом користувача до частини мережі і захисту чутливої або секретної інформації.

A certain amount must be used to insulate the spindle, but this should be kept outside the electrostatic field. – Деяку кількість треба використати для ізоляції шпинделя, але його слід тримати зовні електростатичного поля.

Exercise 1. Rewrite sentences for the past and future. Use equivalents of modal verbs (see Chart 8, p. 102), when it is necessary.

Example:

I can do it. – I’ll be able to do it. – I could do it (I was able to do it.)

1. You must be here in time.

2. You should be polite.

3. He may read this book in the library.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions. Use appropriate modal verbs to express probability.

1. What are your classmates going to do this afternoon (this weekend, during vacations)?

2. What’s the weather forecast for tonight?

3. Why is Peter missing his lessons today?

4. Why are some people afraid of working with computers?

Комунікативна практика

Плани на майбутнє, очікування, передбачення, сподівання

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and answer the questions. Discuss with your classmate your plans for the future.

Peter: Hi, Helen!

Helen: Oh, hi…

Peter: How are you?

Helen: Thanks, fine. How are you?

Peter: Good.

Helen: What are you going to do next weekend?

Peter: Well, I’m not sure… I think I might go to my parents. You know, the weather isn’t going to be fine. And I’m passing my exam next Tuesday.

Helen: Lucky you!

Peter: Yeah… And my bike is out of order; I don’t think I’ll fix it before weekend.

Helen: Peter, where’s Ann? I haven’t seen her since John’s birthday party.

Peter: Oh, she’s overseas right now. She arrives tomorrow.

Helen: Give her my kind regards. I’ll call her.

Peter: Good bye!

Helen: Bye-bye!

1. Who are the speakers?

2. What are their intentions?

3. Which of intentions are definite and which are possible?

4. Where does the conversation take place?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 106-107 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences into English using modal verbs.

1. Вчитель запитав чи володіємо ми англійською мовою та запросив відвідати лекцію професора з Великої Британії.

2. Я маю піти туди негайно.

3. Ми отримали повідомлення, що наша доповідь відбудеться у вівторок.

4. Він не міг розмовляти вільно німецькою минулого року.

5. Тобі слід лишитися вдома та викликати лікаря.

6. Йому не можна було цього робити.

7. Невже він це зробив?

Exercise 3. Use the following groups of synonyms in sentences of your own.

1. To be educated at – to receive education.

2. To graduate (from, at) – to obtain one’s degree at (from).

3. To be associated with – to collaborate with – to work in collaboration with.

4. To win a prize – to be awarded a prize.

5. To deliver a lecture – to give a lecture.

6. To be recognized – to win recognition.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. First try to guess the missing words. Then listen and fill in the spaces.

The introduction of vacuum __________ at the beginning of the 20th century was the starting point of the rapid growth of modern _____________. With vacuum tubes the manipulation of signals became possible, which could not be done with the early _________ and telephone circuit or with the early transmitters using high-voltage sparks to _________ radio waves.

The simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains two ___________: the cathode, a heated filament or a small, heated, metal tube that emits electrons through thermionic emission; and the _________, or plate, which is the electron-collecting element. In diodes, the _________ emitted by the cathode are attracted to the plate only when the latter is ________ with respect to the cathode. When the plate is negatively _________, no current flows through the tube. If an alternating potential is applied to the plate, the tube passes current only during the positive halves of the cycle and thus acts as a __________.

The introduction of a third electrode, called a _______, interposed between the cathode and the anode, forms the triode, which for many years was the basic tube used for _________ current. The function of the grid is to control the current flow. At a certain negative _________, the grid, because it repels electrons, can impede the flow of electrons __________ the cathode and the anode. At lower negative potentials, the electron flow ________ on the grid potential. The grid usually consists of a network of fine _____ surrounding the cathode. The capacity of the triode to amplify depends on the small changes in the _________ between the grid and the cathode causing large changes in the number of electrons reaching the anode. Thus, the basic components of a triode _________ tube are comparable to those of the transistor which include the emitter corresponding to the heated ________ of the triode tube as the source of electrons.

Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely ________ by transistors, which are cheaper, smaller, and more _________. Tubes still play an important role in certain applications, however, such as in power stages in radio and television transmitters, and in scientific and military __________ that must resist strong voltage pulses which destroy transistors. The cathode ray _____ is still a base of many modern TVs and _________ monitors.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the diode used for?

2. What is the function of the additional electrode, the greed, in the vacuum triode?

3. Which devices of mentioned above are used for rectification of a direct current into alternating one?

4. What kinds of rectifying circuits with transistors or vacuum tubs do you know?

5. Do vacuum tubes have any advantages over transistors?

6. Are transistors more reliable than vacuum tubes?

7. What adjectives can be used with the noun “tube”?

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false in relation to the information in the text in the Exercise 1. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Any vacuum tube has at least three electrodes.

2. The electric current in the vacuum tube is a flow of positively charged ions.

3. The greed in a vacuum tube needs to be heated.

4. In certain condition the greed and the plate can emit electrons by themselves.

5. The intercity of electron stream in the vacuum tube always depend on voltage between the cathode and plate.

6. Transistors usually consume more power than vacuum tubes.

7. Nowadays most of people have never seen any vacuum tube.

Граматичні відомості

Безособові форми дієслова, інфінітив (the Infinitive)

Форми дієслів, як активні, так і пасивні (табл. 6, 7), змінюються у відповідності з особою та числом суб’єкта, дію чи стан якого вони виражають. Існують також дієслівні форми аналогічні формам нашої мови, які не змінюються відповідно до особи і виконують функції, близькі до іменникових (інфінітив, герундій) чи прикметникових (дієприкметник):

To read is pleasant. – Читати приємно (інфінітив).

After reading the letter he went out. – Прочитавши (після того як він прочитав) лист, він вийшов (герундій).

She looked at the woman reading a book. – Вона подивилась на жінку, яка читала книгу (дієприкметник теперішнього часу).

All books read by you are in the drawer. – Всі книги, які ти читаєш, в шухляді (дієприкметник минулого часу).

Інфінітив (невизначена форма дієслова) відповідає на запитання що робити?, що зробити?, має форми часу і стану – табл. 10.

Таблиця 10

Форми інфінітива

	Simple	Continuous	Perfect	Perfect Continuous
Active	to ask to write	to be asking to be writing	to have asked to have written	to have been asking to have been writing
Passive	to be asked to be written	-------	to have been asked to have been written	-------

Інфінітив може виражати дію взагалі, що не має відношення до конкретного об’єкта:

Inability to build high-voltage generators and motors gives to the transformers immediate recognition as a highly flexible link between the generation and distribution of electrical energy. – Неможливість створити високовольтні генератори та двигуни забезпечує потребу в трансформаторах як дуже гнучка проміжна ланка між виробником та користувачем електричної енергії.

Однак в більшості випадків об’єкт вказується конкретно і в залежності від характеру дії використовується активна чи пасивна форма інфінітива:

This software will be able to accept some sort of standard document format. – Ця програма зможе сприйняти певний тип стандартного формату документа.

This allows data to be enciphered in a combiner, and then deciphered in an extractor. – Це дозволяє зашифрувати дані в комбінаторі і потім дешифрувати в екстракторі.

Останній приклад також ілюструє можливість скорочення форми дієслова при слідуванні підряд двох однакових конструкцій: ми використовуємо deciphered замість to be deciphered.

Як уже згадувалось вище, після модальних дієслів, за винятком ought, інфінітив використовується без частки to:

Handling even minimal data expansion may be difficult in some systems. – У деяких системах навіть мінімальне розширення даних може викликати труднощі з їх обробленням.

Інфінітив також використовується без частинки to в низці інших випадків, зокрема після дієслів, “сприйняття” (perception verbs) – see, notice, feel, look at, hear, smell і т.д., а також після дієслів to make (змушувати), to have (просити), to let (дозволяти), to help (допомагати):

I have my mother cook a dinner.

I saw him run down the street.

I let him go there.

Однак в пасивному стані to зберігається:

He was seen to leave the room. He was let to go there.

Слід також пам’ятати, що після дієслова to get (домовлятися), однотипного з дієсловами to make і to have, інфінітив використовується як звично:

I got Peter to give me a ride.

Інфінітив в формі Perfect використовується в тих випадках, коли потрібно підкреслити, що дія, яка виражена інфінітивом, відбулась до часу дії, яка виражена основним дієсловом:

Anyway, the chopped light technique is known to have been used by Brattain to eliminate the effect of slow states. – У будь-якому разі відомо, що методика світлових імпульсів уже використовувалася Браттайном для усунення впливу повільних станів.

Інші форми інфінітива, згадані в таблиці 10, вживаються досить рідко.

Exercise 1. Translate infinitive constructions paying special attention to verbs to seem, to appear (здаватися, мабуть), likely (можливо).

1. This type of software sometimes seems to have yet another level of strength above the usual stream cipher.

2. Although ‘strength’ would seem to be the entire point of using a cipher, cryptography has no way to measure strength.

3. A cipher appears to reduce the protection of secret information to enciphering under some key, and then keeping that key secret.

4. It is also possible for a stream cipher to be re-keyed or re-originate frequently, and so appear to operate on ‘blocks.’

5. If the vectors happen to be perpendicular, we have a Cartesian coordinate system, but in any case we can locate any point on the plane by its position on the grid.

6. The results are likely to be correct.

7. The message is certain to come soon.

8. The weather appears to be improving.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences by using the Infinitive. Add a preposition if necessary.

1. I’d like _____________ Crimea this summer.

2. I want ______________ computer game tonight.

3. I can’t wait ___________ my friend. I really missed her.

4. Students of our Institute intend ___________ experts in high technology.

5. Its high technology appeals to parents as well as children, and it was relatively cheap __________.

6. Peter hopes _______________ all of his courses this term. So far his grades have been good.

7. The bill failed _____________ the House of Representatives.

Комунікативна практика

Приязнь та нелюбов

Listen to the conversation. Discuss with your classmate your likes and dislikes.

A: What do you enjoy doing?

B: Well, let me think ... I’m not sure, but I could probably work with computer.

A: Maybe you could be an accountant.

B: No, I can’t stand sitting at the desk all day long. And, as a matter of fact, I don’t like working with figures.

A: But what do you like to do?

B: Well, I love meeting new people; I’m tired of having some routine every day.

A: Are you worried about earning a lot of money?

B: Not at all. I don’t think it matters all that much.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 112-113 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Put particle ‘to’ before infinitive when it is necessary.

Yet the evolution of the large-scale structure of the universe depends very much on the details of the very first structures __ form.

Norman and his former students have worked for a number of years ___ increase the predictive ability of their model of the early universe, “basically waiting for the size of the supercomputers __ catch up to the spatial dynamic range that we need,” he explains.

You can’t make someone ___ stop smoking. They have _____ want _____ do it.

Anyone who has worked with firewall technology at all should be familiar with the terminology used __ describe it.

You must __ have used antivirus program before opening new documents.

Exercise 3. Translate Infinitive expressions.

1. Our chief wishes the work to be done at once.

2. I’d like him to be invited to our laboratory.

3. I’d like to be offered this position.

4. To understand the importance of this law we should consider the following examples.

5. The students have a good library to study in.

6. He worked hard not to lag behind the other students.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations in the sentences of your own:

rectification, intrinsic semiconductor, collector, amplification, integrated circuit, vacuum tube, semiconducting diode, thermionic emission, control element, doping.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences.

1. When atoms of trivalent boron are substituted for some of the tetravalent silicon atoms, …

2. Semiconductor materials may be divided into ...

3. The simplest transistor consists of …

4. Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely replaced by transistors because …

5. However tubes still play an important role in certain applications …

6. Electronic amplifiers are used …

7. The development of integrated circuits has revolutionized the fields of …

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Depending on the impurity added, the silicon may have a minority of mobile negative charge carriers (n-type) or a minority of positive charge carriers (p-type).

2. Improved manufacturing techniques now permit the production of a single chip with more than 3 hundred transistors on an area of less than several decimeters.

3. Because of its good conductivity some parts of certain integrated circuits are made of gold.

4. When the grid of a vacuum tube is positive, it repels electrons, and only a fraction of the electrons emitted by the cathode can reach the anode.

5. The bipolar transistor was invented in ancient Greece as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube.

Граматичні відомості

Специфічні випадки використання інфінітива, інфіні-тивних зворотів

Надзвичайно важливою функцією інфінітива, яка широко використовується, в тому числі і в науково-технічній літературі, є вираження наміру, мети:

I remained there (in order, so as) to see what would happen. – Я залишився там, щоб подивитись, що трапиться.

Сполучники in order, so as майже завжди лише маються на увазі, але не використовуються:

The new approach is a variant of using aircraft to ‘seed’ clouds. – Новий підхід є варіантом використання літака для того, щоб “засіяти” хмари.

We can measure the duration of ciphering operations and use that to reveal the key or data. – Ми можемо вимірювати тривалість операцій шифрування і використати це для розкриття паролів чи даних.

The use of the term ‘break’ can be misleading when an impractical amount of work is required to achieve the break. – Коли для здійснення злому, необхідно виконати надзвичайно великий, тобто практично неможливий об’єм роботи, використання терміна “злом” може ввести в оману.

Ще одним типом речень, які використовують інфінітив, є вирази, які містять слова too (надто) і enough (достатньо):

This is the obvious way to attack a cipher, and the way any cipher can be attacked, so ciphers are designed to have a large enough key-selected transformations to make this much too expensive to use in practice. – Це очевидний спосіб атаки на шифр, який може бути використаний для розкриття будь-яких шифрів, тому шифри створюються таким чином, щоб мати достатньо багато трансформацій, визначених паролем, і зробити цей шлях надто коштовним для практичного використання.

Інфінітив в різних формах використовується у стандартних граматичних конструкціях, так званих інфінітивних зворотах, що широко поширені як у письмовому, так і розмовному англійському мовленні. Розглянемо декілька найбільш характерних прикладів.

Інфінітив звичайно вживається після дієслів, що висловлюють бажання, прагнення, любов, ненависть: to want, to desire, to wish, should (would) like, to like, to hate; припущення: to expect, to think, to believe; наказ, прохання, вимогу: to order, to ask, to allow, та деяких інших.

I’d like him to be asked at once. – Я хотів би, щоб його одразу запитали.

I believe them to be experts in this field. – Я вважаю, що вони є фахівцями у цій галузі.

We expect Peter to arrive soon. – Ми очікуємо, що Петро скоро приїде.

I know the matter to have been discussed. – Я знаю, що вправа вже обговорена.

I think them to be walking in the garden. – Я думаю, що він зараз гуляє у саду.

Як бачимо з наведених прикладів, у подібних зворотах займенник та інфінітив, що слідує за цим займенником, виконують у реченні функцію одного члена речення, а саме додатка, відповідаючи на питання “чого?” або “що?”. Такі конструкції носять назву “об’єктний відмінок з інфінітивом” та звичайно перекладаються українською мовою як складнопідрядне речення. До речі, в англійській мові інколи теж можлива заміна цих зворотів на відповідне складне речення:

I think them to be walking in the garden. = I think that they are walking in the garden.

Але мовлення зазвичай фіксує перший з вказаних вище варіантів, тобто з інфінітивом.

Ще одним прикладом заміни складнопідрядного речення на просте, є використання звороту “називний відмінок з інфінітивом” (nominative with the Infinitive) замість складнопідрядного речення, де у головній частині присутній зворот з невизначеною особою типу it is reported, it is said, it seems та ін.

It is said that he has been living in Kyiv for a long time. = He is said to have been living …

It seems the prices are rising again. = The prices seem to be rising again.

У цьому випадку практично використовуються обидва варіанти, які перекладаються українською мовою як складно-підрядне речення. Для вказаного звороту характерно використання всіх можливих форм інфінітива як в активній, так і в пасивній формах.

The building is said to have already been built. – Кажуть, що будинок вже збудований.

Exercise 1. Add “in order” to infinitive structures if possible (when the structure expresses purpose).

Example: I’m going to install the program to protect my data. – Inserting is possible only for infinitive “to protect”: I’m going to install the program in order to protect my data.

1. You have to look in your dictionary to find out the meaning of the word.

2. Not to offend anyone, I did not tell them the real reason for my visit.

3. To be an expert in your field, you have to study for years.

4. The exploratory design is used to accumulate data to formulate more precise hypotheses and research questions.

5. The principal aim of this exploratory research is to gain a better understanding of franchising and the franchising decision.

6. He touched me gently to attract my attention.

7. Let’s go to eat something.

Exercise 2. Change complex sentences to simple ones using Infinitive expressions.

Example: It is said that they know the matter. They are said to know the matter.

1. It proved that he was an expert in electronics.

2. It is unlikely that he returns soon.

3. They say that prices will rise again.

4. I want that he will come here and help me.

5. He expected that I would come tonight.

6. I believe that they are honest people.

7. It seems that we will be late.

Комунікативна практика

Пропозиція допомоги. Згода та відмова

Пропонуючи допомогу, звертайтесь до співбесідника з ввічливим питанням (прямим або опосередкованим):

Can I help you?

Can I help you with that?

Would you like me to get it for you?

Do you think you can manage this on your own?

If you want, I could get it for you.

Any point in my getting it for you?

How about me getting it for you?

Is there anything I can do for you?

What seems to be the trouble?

Як звичайно, форма питання залежить від ступеня знайомства, віку співбесідників та інших обставин. Будьте обережні, інколи занадто ввічлива фраза може бути сприйнята як іронічна або навіть саркастична.

Ваша пропозиція може бути сприйнята або відхилена. Форма відповіді знов-таки суттєво залежить від вищезазначених факторів:

Thanks.

Thanks a lot.

Oh, would you? Thanks.

That’s nice of you, thanks.

Thank you, kind sir.

No, don’t bother, I can do it myself.

Thanks a lot, but I’m OK.

You could if I needed something.

Exercise 1. Work with your classmate. Offer some help: to pass something, to find out direction, to get acquainted with something, etc.

Exercise 2. Listen to partner’s problems (terrible headache, homework isn’t done, watch has stopped, etc.). Offer your assistance.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

At its present stage of electronics development, the transistor is as effective as a vacuum tube, both of which can amplify to an upper limit of about 1000 megahertz. Among the advantages of the transistor are its small size and very small power requirements. Therefore, transistors have replaced most vacuum-tube amplifiers in light, portable electronic equipment, such as airborne navigational aids and the control systems of guided missiles, in which weight and size are prime considerations. Commercial applications include very small hearing aids and compact portable radio and television receivers. In addition, transistors have completely replaced vacuum tubes in electronic computers, which require a great many amplifiers.

Transistors are also used in miniaturized diagnostic instruments, such as those used to transmit electrocardiograph, respiratory, and other data from the bodies of astronauts on space flights. Nearly all transmitting equipment used in space-exploration probes employs transistorized circuitry. Transistors also aid in diagnosing diseases. Miniature radio transmitters using transistors can also be implanted in the bodies of animals for ecological studies of feeding habits, patterns of travel, and other factors. A recent commercial application is the transistorized ignition system in automobiles.

During the late 1960s a new electronic technique, the integrated circuit, began to replace the transistor in complex electronic equipment. Although roughly the same size as a transistor, an integrated circuit performs the function of 15 to 20 transistors. A natural development from the integrated circuit in the 1970s has been the production of medium-, large-, and very large-scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI, and VLSI), which have permitted the building of a compact computer, or minicomputer, containing disk storage units and the communication-control systems on the same frame.

The so-called microprocessor, which came into use in the mid-1970s, is a refinement of the LSI. As a result of further miniaturization, a single microprocessor can incorporate the functions of a number of printed-circuit boards and deliver the performance of the central processing unit of a much larger computer in a hand-held, battery-powered microcomputer.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into English using the Infinitive.

1. Повідомляють, що учасники конференції вже прибули.

2. Ми сподіваємось розмістити їх у готелі “Авіатор”.

3. Так трапилось (to happen), що я це чув.

4. Мабуть ми скоро дізнаємось про це.

5. Кажуть, що він дуже розумний.

6. Я сподіваюсь, що ви зробите все вчасно.

7. Це ви маєте вирішувати.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Draw simple amplifying circuit on either transistor or vacuum tube and explain its action.

Exercise 2. Skim during 5-7 minutes the text below and answer the questions about it content.

The earliest type of the transistor is the bipolar one invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube. It consists of three layers of doped material, forming two p-n (bipolar) junctions with configurations of p-n-p or n-p-n. One junction is connected to a battery so as to allow current flow (forward bias), and the other junction has a battery connected in the opposite direction (reverse bias). If the current in the forward-biased junction is varied by the addition of a signal, the current in the reverse-biased junction of the transistor will vary accordingly. The principle can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the forward-biased junction causes a large change in current in the reverse-biased junction.

Another type of transistor is the field-effect transistor (FET). Such a transistor operates on the principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a superimposed electric field. So they are voltage rather than current controlled, and the base, collector, and emitter functions of the bipolar junction transistor are replaced by the so-called gate, drain, and source terminals, respectively. The control voltage is applied at right angles to the current to be controlled. In contrast to bipolar transistors the function of the field-effect transistors involves only one type of current carriers (electrons or holes), so sometimes they are considered as unipolar type. Different types of field effect transistors include the junction-gate field effect transistor (JFET), the metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), and the insulated-gate field effect transistor (IGFET). The smallest MOSFET is 1/75,000 as wide as a human hair. The MOSFET has for the most part replaced the bipolar junction transistor in computer memory chips. Usually a memory unit consists of two metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, one N-type and one P-type, integrated on a single silicon chip. Field-effect transistors operate more efficiently than bipolar types, because a large signal can be controlled by a very small amount of energy. These devices have very high speed and extremely low power consumption. They are, however, easily damaged by static electricity.

bias drain field-effect gate right

зміщення стік (рос.: сток) польовий (транзистор) затвор прямий (кут)

oxide source static unipolar to superimpose

оксид джерело (рос.: исток) статичний уніполярний накладатися

1. What types of transistor do you know?

2. When was the earliest type of transistor invented?

3. What are the advantages of the field effect transistors over the bipolar ones?

4. Why field effect transistors are considered as unipolar type?

5. How big are the contemporary transistors?

Exercise 3. Find words in Exercise 2 that have an opposite meaning to:

to destroy multi-polar plural identical reverse-biased

suppressor to exclude similarly emitter to separate

large repulsion dynamic drain with difficulties

Граматичні відомості

Герундій (the Gerund)

Герундій – це форма дієслова з закінченням -ing, яка використовується як іменник. В нашій мові відповідної граматичної форми, проміжної між дієсловом і прикметником, нема, хоча звичайно суттєвих труднощів з перекладом висловів, які містять герундій, не виникає, щонайменше для простих форм:

I am fond of reading. – Я люблю читати (читання).

I remember reading this book. – Я пам’ятаю, що читав цю книгу.

Як й інфінітив, герундій змінюється за часом і має активний та пасивний способи (табл. 11), хоча на практиці всі форми, за винятком Indefinite Active, використовуються надзвичайно рідко.

Таблиця 11

Форми герундія

	Simple	Past
Active	informing	having informed
Passive	being informed	having been informed

He likes being invited by his friends. – Він любить, коли його запрошують друзі.

У деяких випадках замість пасивного стану використовується активний:

The book is worth reading. – Книгу варто прочитати.

Декілька прикладів використання герундія в технічних текстах:

Recognizing plaintext may or may not be easy. – Розпізнавання нешифрованих текстів може бути як простим, так і складним.

We start out by enciphering the data in the first block. – Ми починаємо, шифруючи дані в першому блоці.

The advantage is the ability to cipher individual characters, instead of requiring accumulation into a block before processing. – Перевагою цього є можливість шифрування окремих символів замість того, щоб вимагати їх накопичення у вигляді блоку перед обробленням.

Conception can be proven by disclosure to others, preferably in documents, which can be signed and dated after being read and understood. – Концепція може бути підтверджена шляхом публікації, переважно в документах, які можуть бути підписані і датовані після того, як їх прочитають і зрозуміють.

Поряд з позитивною, існує також заперечна форма герундія, яка утворюється за допомогою частки not:

We discussed about not going to the conference.

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences explaining the functions of the Gerund.

1. In this case the ciphertext needs deciphering before transmittance to the customer.

2. Another problem, however, is how to prevent the radio-wave emissions from computers and printers from being picked up by electronic listening equipment.

3. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is responsible for making sure the entire message is received in the correct format.

4. Unlike Babbage’s idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s method used cards to store data information.

5. On finding that the engine is working in irregular rate the pilot must take steps for emergency landing.

6. You will never speak good English without learning grammar.

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences.

1. Flares have the advantage of being under control of the pilot all the tame.

2. Combinatorics is often related to counting the subsets of finite sets.

3. For the Comet 4.3.5 kVA variable-frequency supply is available from the alternator output for demisting and deicing the wind screens, in addition to the 350-amp D. C. supply.

4. Be careful in performing the instruction.

5. Customers insisted on the software being supplied with adequate support.

6. Before leaving the firewall messages can be transformed into compressed representation.

7. This offer is made subject to receiving your confirmation within ten days.

Комунікативна практика

Обговорення думок, погодження та заперечення

Listen to conversations while reading. Find out who are the speakers, what are their roles and targets.

A: Well, if you ask me, there’s too much trouble with getting information via Internet. Spam and viruses are everywhere!

B: Oh, I’m not sure if I agree with you. It’s not too bad. You can filter out spam with special software. And there are a lot of excellent antivirus programs nowadays.

C: I think you’re partly right, but still I spend too much time and money on things like that. As for me I’d like our state toughened up anti-hackers laws.

A: You know, that’s exactly what I think. We need stronger laws and stronger responsibility.

B: Don’t make me laugh! Internet is a worldwide web. How our government can force foreign hackers to be more peaceful and law-abiding?

C: Don’t you think that we have quite enough of our own hackers. Anyway, you know as they say: “A good beginning is a half the battle.”

У наведеному діалозі подані зразки стандартних фраз під час розмови, що передують згоді та запереченню. Ще декілька прикладів:

Згода:

I couldn’t agree more.

That’s a good point.

That’s just what I was thinking.

Незгода:

That’s quite true, but…

Well, you have a point there, but…

Maybe, but…

Якщо ви близько знайомі зі співрозмовником, можливі інші вислови, особливо коли це стосується заперечень:

Are you kidding? (No kidding!)

Come off it!

I know that’s not true.

Exercise. Discuss with your classmates some moot questions. Try to express as many points of view as possible. Here is a list of possible items:

Hardware could be damage by computer viruses.

Computers will destroy human civilization.

Humans are not alone in Universe.

Attending of classes is a waste of time.

Cloning must be banned.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 125-126 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Change sentences using Gerund. Add preposition if need be.

Example: When I received a message, I prepared an answer at once. = After receiving a message I prepared an answer at once.

1. I remember that I have red this paper.

2. While he was writing a new program, he made a few mistakes.

3. After he tried a lot of passwords, he finally found the right one.

4. You can improve your skills in grammar if you make more exercises.

5. After entering the room he said hello and shook hands.

Exercise 3. Translate into English using the word ‘most’.

1. Стаття в останньому номері журналу дуже цікава.

2. Це надзвичайно цікава стаття.

3. Це найцікавіша стаття останнього номера журналу.

4. Більша частина статей в цьому номері журналу написана учасниками конференції.

5. Більшість з нас думає так (think so).

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

What types of transistors do you know? How different are they?

Why metal-oxide transistors are used in contemporary memory microchips?

What are the names of control elements in field-effect transistors?

Why field-effect transistors are more economical in comparison with bipolar transistors?

Is there any limit to miniaturization of microchip?

Exercise 2. Work in pairs or in small groups. First student will propose some nouns concerning the topic “transistors and integrated circuits”. His/her partner has to give adjectives fitted them.

Example: transistor - bipolar, point-contact, junction, field-effect, metal-oxide, unipolar, miniature, compact, thermo-stable, powerful, effective, etc.

Граматичні відомості

Герундій або інфінітив – що обрати?

Функції інфінітива і герундія часто близькі і навіть збігаються:

It began to rain. = It began raining.

I started to work. = I started working.

Після деяких дієслів звичайно використовують чи герундій чи інфінітив. Наприклад, за дієсловом to plan (планувати) слідує інфінітив:

I plan to pass the test.

За деякими дієсловами спочатку слідує іменник чи займенник, а потім інфінітив:

I told him to join us.

За такими дієсловами, як to avoid (запобігати) звичайно слідує не інфінітив, а герундій:

He avoided looking at me.

В табл. 12 наведені деякі дієслова, що часто використовуються, а також дієслівні форми, що рекомендуються після них.

Таблиця 12

Дієслова, які використовуються з інфінітивом і герундієм

Verb + infinitive	Verb + pro(noun) + infinitive	Verb + gerund	Verb + infinitive/ gerund
agree (to) appear ask decide hope intend mean need offer plan promise pretend refuse seem want would like	advice (someone to) allow ask expect force invite need order permit require remind tell want warn would like	avoid consider delay discuss enjoy finish go* have* quit mention mind keep postpone stop*** suggest	begin can’t stand continue hate like love prefer start forget** regret** remember** try**

*Вислови, в яких використовуються ці дієслова з наступним герундієм часто є ідіомами, наприклад, to go fishing – рибалити;

**Значення висловів під час використання цих дієслів з інфінітивом і герундієм дещо різняться:

forget + inf. – забути про обов’язки, + gerund – про минуле;

regret + inf. – жалкувати про сказане, + gerund – про минуле;

remember + inf. – пам’ятати про обов’язок, + gerund – про минуле;

try + inf. – пробувати, + gerund – випробовувати.

***stop + gerund – припинити щось робити; stop + infinitive – зупинитись, аби щось зробити.

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the Infinitive or Gerund form of the verb in parenthesis.

1. Students played the make-believe game at the last lesson. Peter pretended (be) an expert in electronics, and the rest pretended (be) beginners asking the questions.

2. Our classmates plan (go, fish) this weekend.

3. Peter would like (attend) next student conference in Kharkiv.

4. She can’t stand (sit) at the desk all day.

5. Why don’t you stop (read) this? I don’t believe a word of it.

6. Let’s stop (drink) something. I’m thirsty.

7. John has bought a new computer. He appears (have) a lot of money.

Exercise 2. Employ the words from the Chart 9 in sentences of your own. Use Gerund or Infinitive.

Exercise 3. Translate sentences paying attention to the differences in meaning of Gerund and Infinitive forms.

1. My phone is out of order. It needs repairing.

2. I can’t read the disk. The drive needs cleaning.

3. I failed the test. I need to take more exercises.

4. Can anyone help me move this piano? I can’t do it myself.

5. Be serious! I can’t help laughing!

6. He remembered meeting her at a party once.

7. Did you remember to lock the back door?

8. I hope Nick remembers to buy something to eat and drink.

9. They do try to communicate with us, and they expect us to understand.

10. “My cactus is dying.” – “Have you tried putting it in a sunnier room?”

Комунікативна практика

Поради з використанням звороту “had better…”

У мовленні для порад дуже широко використовується сполучення had better (скорочена форма ‘d better).

I think you'd better ask Peter first. – Вважаю, що ти мав би спочатку спитати у Петра.

You had better not tell him. – Краще б ти йому це не казав.

Інколи у мовленні better ставлять на перше місце, у цьому випадку had зникає, але загальний зміст фрази не змінюється:

Better just check they are okay. – Слід спочатку переконатись, що з ними все гаразд.

Порада може даватися і собі:

I'd better go and get ready. – Мені краще піти та підготуватись.

Майте на увазі, що у певних ситуаціях “поради” можуть сприйматися як прямі погрози:

You'd better keep your mouth shut about this. – Раджу тобі тримати язика за зубами.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text into Ukrainian (Russian).

During the late 1960s a new electronic technique, the integrated circuit, began to replace the transistor in complex electronic equipment. Although roughly the same size as a transistor, an integrated circuit performs the function of 15 to 20 transistors. A natural development from the integrated circuit in the 1970s has been the production of medium-, large-, and very large-scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI, and VLSI), which have permitted the building of a compact computer, or minicomputer, containing disk storage units and the communication-control systems on the same frame.

The so-called microprocessor, which came into use in the mid-1970s, is a refinement of the LSI. As a result of further miniaturization, a single microprocessor can incorporate the functions of a number of printed-circuit boards and deliver the performance of the central processing unit of a much larger computer in a hand-held, battery-powered microcomputer.

Most integrated circuits are small pieces, or “chips,” of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4 sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated. Photolithography enables the designer to create tens of thousands of transistors on a single chip by proper placement of the many n-type and p-type regions. These are interconnected with very small conducting paths during fabrication to produce complex special-purpose circuits. Such integrated circuits are called monolithic because they are fabricated on a single crystal of silicon. Chips require much less space and power and are cheaper to manufacture than an equivalent circuit built by employing individual transistors.

Building a chip typically requires several hundred manufacturing steps that take weeks to complete. Each step must be executed perfectly if the chip is to work. The conditions are demanding. For example, because a speck of dust can ruin a chip, the manufacturing has to be done in a “clean room” containing less than one submicron particle of dust per cubic foot of air (in contrast, the average living room has between 100,000 and one million particles per cubic foot of air). Much of the equipment needed for making chips embodies the highest of high technology, with the result that chip factories—which cost between $1 billion and $2 billion for a state-of-the-art facility—are among the costliest of manufacturing plants.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into English using Gerund.

Менделєєв зробив великий внесок в науку (to make fundamental contribution), відкривши закон періодичності (the Law of Periodicity).

Я хочу розпочати з демонстрації декількох таблиць.

Нам пощастило досягнути успіху завдяки вдосконаленню (to improve) апаратури.

Дозвольте мені закінчити, продемонструвавши вам низку слайдів, на яких наведені згадані зразки.

Exercise 3. Complete sentences using either the Infinitive or the Gerund. In some cases both forms are possible.

1. You should avoid…

2. We invited …

3. They like…

4. I could continue…

5. He has begun…

6. He started…

7. Thank you for…

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Listen to the text and answer the questions.

The first operation while producing the chip is the design. When tens of millions of transistors are to be built on a square of silicon about the size of a child’s fingernail, the placing and interconnections of the transistors must be meticulously worked out. Because of the complexity of today’s chips, the design work is done by computer, although engineers often print out an enlarged diagram of a chip’s structure to examine it in detail.

The base material for building an integrated circuit is a silicon crystal. To make a silicon crystal, raw silicon obtained from quartz rock is treated with chemicals that remove contaminants until what remains is almost 100 percent silicon. This purified silicon is melted and then formed into cylindrical single crystals called ingots. The ingots are sliced into wafers about 0.725 millimeter thick. In a step called planarization they are polished with a slurry until they have a flawless, mirror-smooth surface.

Making the transistors and their interconnections entails several different basic steps that are repeated many times. The most complex chips made today consist of 20 or more layers and may require several hundred separate processing steps to build them up one by one.

The first layer is silicon dioxide, an insulator. It is created by putting the wafers into a diffusion furnace – essentially an oven at high temperature where a thin layer of oxide is grown on the wafer surface.

Removed from the furnace, the wafer is ready for its first patterning, or photolithographic, step. A coating of a fairly viscous polymeric liquid called photoresist, which becomes soluble when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, is applied to the surface. A spigot deposits a precise amount of photoresist on the wafer surface. Then the wafer is spun so that centrifugal force spreads the liquid over the surface at an even thickness. This operation takes place on every layer that is modified by a photolithographic procedure called masking.

A mask is the device through which ultraviolet light shines to define the circuit pattern on each layer of a chip. The mask image is transferred to the wafer using a computer-controlled machine known as a stepper. It has a sophisticated lens system with a resolution as small as 0.25 micron. Ultraviolet light from an arc lamp or a laser shines through the clear spaces of the mask’s intricate pattern onto the photoresist layer of a single chip. The stepper table then moves the wafer the precise distance required to position another chip under the light. On each chip, the parts of the photoresist layer that were struck by the light become soluble and can be developed, much like photographic film, using organic solvents.

1. How many transistors may be squeezed onto computer chip?

2. What is the base of microchip?

3. What are the main stages of microchip production?

4. Why is ultraviolet, but not visible light used during treating the surface?

5. Are there any limits of size of electronic components on the surface of semiconducting single crystal?

6. Why must the single crystal of semiconductor be extremely pure?

Граматичні відомості

Дієприкметник (the Participle)

Дієприкметник використовується для характеристики іменників (функція прикметника, adjective) чи дієслів (функція прислівника, adverb), а також зв’язування простих речень в складні.

В таблиці 13 наведені типові форми дієприкметників, які можуть бути активними та пасивними, змінюються за часом.

Таблиця 13

Форми дієприкметників

	Active	Passive
Present	discussing	being discussed
Past	–	discussed
Perfect	having discussed	having been discussed

Слід вказати, що наведені в таблиці назви часів дієприкметників в деякій мірі умовні. Так, наприклад, дієприкметник Present Participle може характеризувати дію як в теперішньому часі, так і в минулому і майбутньому:

Brattain and Bardeen, applying this method to germanium, were able to achieve an accuracy of about one millivolt. – Браттайн і Бардин, які використали цей метод для германію, змогли отримати точність біля одного мілівольту. – Дія, яка виражена діє­прикметником, визначається сполученням were able, тобто належить до минулого.

When the signal comes, the position of the vehicle passing at this moment by the inner beacon will be far away from the starting point. – Коли сигнал прийде, положення транспортного засобу, який в цей момент проходитиме вздовж внутрішнього маяку, буде далеко від початкової точки. – Майбутнє визначається сполученням will be.

У вказаних випадках Participle I (applying, passing) використовується незалежно від часу основного дієслова-присудка (to be), при цьому мається на увазі, що дія відбувається одночасно з головним дієсловом.

В той же час ця форма може виражати дію в момент мовлення незалежно від часової форми присудка:

The letter lying on the desk was received yesterday.

Переклад дієприкметників в функції прикметника як правило не викликає труднощів: running car, broken cup, discussing problem, problem being discussed, question having been asked.

Дієприкметники теперішнього часу бувають як активними, так і пасивними:

This function is reversible, as well as being balanced on both inputs. – Ця функція є оберненою, а також балансується з обох входів.

Перфектні форми дієприкметника використовуються досить рідко і підкреслюють закінчений характер дії, факт його здійснення до іншої дії:

Having thrown the ball into the water, the boy could not get it back. – Кинувши м’яч в воду, хлопчик не міг його дістати.

Дієприкметники часто утворюють самостійні сполучення:

Following a suggestion by Geballe that the incorporation of thermal gradient might yield interesting information, Zemel and Greene measured the thermoelectric power of intrinsic germanium. – Слідуючи за припущенням Гебалле, що реєстрація термічного градієнта може надати цікаву інформацію, Земель і Грін виміряли термоелектричну емісію чистого германію. - У цьому випадку дія following належить до підмета Zemel and Greene.

Having involved a series of more or less novel instruments, it remains to dispose them on a panel, in order that they may be used with maximum use and value. – Отримавши низку більш-менш нових інструментів, залишається розмістити їх на панелі, щоб використати з максимальною користю і навантаженням.

Дещо складніше для перекладу сполучення, де дієприкметник має власний присудок, не зв’язаний з присудком головного речення. У цьому випадку звичайно використовують сполучники типу оскільки, тому що:

The surface potential being lower than the activation barrier, the electrons were not able enter the zone. – Оскільки поверхневий потенціал був нижче бар’єра активації, електрони не змогли увійти в зону.

Exercise 1. Use all the of the Participle with the following verbs:

to stop, to cut, to forget, to begin, to study, to open, to play, to write, to give, can.

Exercise 2. Translate from Ukrainian into English.

1. Над ним сміялися

2. Її слухали неуважно.

3. Нам прочитають цю лекцію до того, як він поїде з Києва.

4. Його щойно відпустили. (to release)

5. Зараз нам читають новий курс.

6. Коли він прийшов, нам показували новий фільм.

Exercise 3. Translate the sentences explaining the functions of the Participle and the Gerund.

1. In the U.S., publication also apparently sets a 1-year clock running for an application to be filled by anyone who does have such proof.

2. The classic stream cipher is very simple, consisting of a keyed random number generator, which produces a random-like confusion sequence, or running key.

3. In a digital system we create a delay by simply counting clock cycles.

4. Integer is an element in the set consisting of counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, ..., their negatives: -1, -2, -3, ..., and zero.

5. A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature.

6. All books taken from the library must be returned in due course.

7. Having been sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

8. Being sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

9. Sent to the wrong address the message did not reach him.

Комунікативна практика

Вибачення

Під час розмови іноді виникає потреба вибачитись перед співбесідником. Для цього існує багато висловів, вибір яких залежить від конкретної ситуації. Декілька прикладів:

Sorry. I’m sorry. I’m very (awfully, extremely) sorry. I can’t tell you how sorry I am.

I feel sorry for …

Excuse me, I didn’t realize …

I hope you can excuse my …

Could I be excused from (…) today?

I just don’t know what to say …

Pardon me.

Well, pardon me for breathing (ironic). = Excuse me for living!

Forgive me, but …

На вибачення можна відповісти таким чином:

Oh, everything is OK (all right).

Don’t worry about that.

Oh, newer mind …

It doesn’t matter …

Exercise 1. Listen to the conversation and then answer the questions.

A: I’m sorry, I’m late. You know how the rush hour traffic is.

B: Well, I don’t know how to tell you, but I completely forgot about a book I promised you to bring. I was so busy last night …

A: Oh, don’t worry about that. You can bring it next time. But unfortunately I’ve got a real problem. Do you remember a calculator you lent me last month?

B: Yes.

A: I’m awfully sorry, but it seems to me that I’ve lost it. I’m trying to find it. Anyway I’ll buy you a new one.

B: Oh, that’s OK. That’s life. By the way it didn’t work properly sometimes. So it doesn’t really matter.

Who are the speakers?

Where are they?

How serious are the problems discussed?

What time is it now?

Why was one of the speakers late?

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

Once the photoresist is patterned, the wafer is ready for etching. During this step, photoresist remaining on the surface protects parts of the underlying layer from being removed by the acids or reactive gases used to etch the pattern on the surface of the wafer. After etching is complete, the protective layer of photoresist is removed to reveal electrically conducting or electrically insulating segments in the pattern determined by the mask.

Further masking and etching steps deposit patterns of additional materials on the chip. On each layer of material, masking and etching create a unique pattern of conducting and nonconducting areas. Together these patterns aligned on top of one another form the chip’s circuitry in a three-dimensional structure. But the circuitry needs fine-tuning to work properly. The tuning is provided by doping.

Doping deliberately adds chemical impurities, such as boron or arsenic, to parts of the silicon wafer to alter the type of conductivity in each doped area. Machines called ion implanters are often used to inject these impurities into the chip.

The material at the base of the chip is p-type silicon. One of the etching steps in the manufacture of a chip removes parts of the polysilicon and silicon dioxide layers put on the pure silicon base earlier, thus laying bare two strips of p-type silicon. Separating them is a strip that still bears its layer of conducting polysilicon; it is the transistor’s “gate.” The doping material now applied to the two strips of p-type silicon transforms them into n-type silicon. A positive charge applied to the gate attracts electrons below the gate in the transistor’s silicon base. These electrons create a channel between one n-type strip (the source) and the other (the drain). If a positive voltage is applied to the drain, current will flow from source to drain. In this mode, the transistor is “on.” A negative charge at the gate depletes the channel of electrons, thereby preventing the flow of current between source and drain. Now the transistor is “off.” It is by means of switching on and off that a transistor represents the arrays of 1 and 0 that constitute the binary code, the language of computers.

Done many times in many layers, these operations provide the chip with its multitude of transistors. The final step is interconnecting the transistors so they form an integrated circuit. This begins with further masking and etching operations that open a thin layer of electrical contacts between layers of the chip. Then aluminum is deposited and patterned using photolithography to create a form of wiring that links all the chip’s transistors.

This step completes the processing of the wafer. Now the individual chips are tested to ensure that all their electrical connections work using tiny electrical probes.

Exercise 2. Make notes about main advantages of contemporary electronics that seem to be the most important for world technical development and progress. What do you think about possible achievements in this field in the future? Prepare short oral reports (around 5 minutes) for these topics.

Lesson 8

Підготовка до модульної контрольної роботи

Revision of topics discussed in lessons 1-7. Every students of the group makes a report devoted to transistors and integrated circuits: their functions, structure, manufacture as well as numerous applications of electronics in modern technologies.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Нижче наведені типові приклади завдань, що можуть бути використані під час письмового тесту.

Exercise 1. Translate into English using modal verbs or their equivalents.

1. Ми маємо поспішити, щоб не запізнитись на лекцію.

2. Він, мабуть, дуже розчарований результатом експерименту.

3. Ми змогли встановити все обладнання вчасно.

4. Тобі слід було краще підготуватись до виступу на вчорашньому семінарі.

5. Я зараз дам вам конспект, щоб ви змогли вчасно підготувати завдання.

6. Не можу повірити, що це дійсно трапилось.

7. Чи треба було нам підтримувати напругу постійною?

8. Ти, мабуть, жартуєш!

9. Тут не можна працювати без гумових рукавиць.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences using either Infinitive or Gerund.

1. Thank you for (attend) our training.

2. We expect the message (arrive) soon.

3. I asked him (call) me next week.

4. There is no hope of our (complete) the task in time.

5. Instead of (attend) the meeting himself he sent his assistant.

6. I’d like (not, say) that.

7. You must (remember) this.

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences with be going to or will, can, may, shall.

1. Could someone help me? – I _________ do it.

2. What are your plans for the next month? – I _____________ to the conference in Odessa.

3. I don’t understand how to do it. – Oh, do you? I ________ explain you.

4. What computer would you like to bye – laptop or smartphone? – I _________ bye a laptop.

5. It looks like it's __________ rain.

6. You know Peter __________ be trouble for Ann from the moment they meet at a party.

7. Mr. Smith _________ (probably arrive) at 6.

8. I’ve a terrible headache, I think I ___________ be sick.

Exercise 4. Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets in appropriate form (finite or non-finite). Add auxiliary verb if necessary.

1. You (to read) that article yet? – No, I only just (to begin) it.

2. We (to walk) to the university when it (to begin) (to rain).

3. As they (to warn) that the meeting was called off, they turned back.

4. They had much difficulties in (to find) the solution.

5. It’s time. Let me (to start).

6. The letter (to type) by the secretary when I came.

7. By the time he is twenty five he (to become) a well-known programmer.

Exercise 5. Translate into English using non-finite form of the verb (Gerund, Infinitive or Participle).

1. Кажуть, що він складає останній екзамен завтра.

2. Здається, хтось прийшов.

3. Я думаю надіслати йому листа.

4. Чи варто перекладати цю статтю?

5. Ми отримали позитивну рецензію на нашу статтю підписану професором Джексоном.

6. Він залишив багато помилок у тексті завдяки тому, що був неуважним.

7. Він відповідає за те, щоб робота над проектом була закінчена вчасно.

Exercise 6. Write all possible forms of participles for the following verbs:

to put, to begin, to install, to read, to set, to forgive, to stay.

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks using the terms of module 3.

1. The purified silicon is melted and then formed into cylindrical single _________ called ingots.

2. Most integrated ________ are small pieces, or “_______,” of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4 sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated.

3. The earliest type of the ________ is the bipolar one invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum ________.

4. The capacity of the triode to amplify depends on the small changes in the voltage between the grid and the ________ causing large changes in the number of _________ reaching the anode.

5. When atoms of trivalent boron are ________ for some of the silicon atoms, each captures one electron from a neighboring silicon atom, leaving an empty space, or ________.

6. Vacuum tubes have now been almost entirely replaced by __________, which are cheaper, smaller, and more _________.

Exercise 8. Explain the terms below with other words.

1. Vacuum tube.

2. Integrated circuit.

3. Doping.

4. Emitter.

5. Cathode.

6. Grid

7. Gate.

Module 4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Lesson 1

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the text. Find out the meaning of the words you don’t understand.

The most common type of computer nowadays is personal computer (PC). This term refers to any independent (stand-alone) computer fully equipped with its own central processing unit, memory, software, storage, and other utilities which make it useful for any individual to successfully accomplish tasks. The term ‘personal computer’ became popular in 1981 after IBM announced a computer whose model name was ‘IBM Personal Computer’. This term is now used generically, and very loosely.

Apart of personal computers, there are computers called ‘neurocomputers’ (the most powerful of computers), ‘supercomputers’, ‘mainframes’ (an industry term for a large computer - the main computer built into a frame), ‘superminicomputers’, ‘minicomputers’, ‘microcomputers.’ Within each type are several divisions. For example, within the microcomputer range are personal computer systems, desktop computers, portable computers, laptops, and notebook computers.

Personal computers are complete business tools. They were introduced to help users break away from the mainframe and minicomputer applications which did not give users any autonomy. Local area networking and then Internet have brought back the cohesion, but still allow users independence and flexibility when choosing applications.

Modern industrial computers being produced since 1971 are considered as fourth generation computers. Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces single central processing unit design with a system controlling the power of many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow. Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient's needs. It will take several more years of development before expert systems are in widespread use.

advance application attribute desktop flexibility generation laptop mainframe

вдосконалення додаток, застосування атрибут, характерна риса настільний, робочий гнучкість покоління, генерація мініатюрний (наколінний) комп’ютер великий стаціонарний комп’ютер, інколи сервер

neurocomputer networking superconductor tool user widespread to apply to equip

нейрокомп’ютер (найбільш доско- налий комп’ютер, як мозок людини) робота в мережі надпровідник засіб, інструмент користувач поширений, розповсюджений застосовувати обладнувати

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What modern types of computers do you know?

2. What companies first proposed personal computers?

3. What type of computer is the most versatile? Ground your point of view.

4. What are the ways of development of modern computers?

5. What are the applications of modern industrial computers?

6. What do you think can be considered as the first computer?

7. Who and when invented the first electronic computer?

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences.

1. PC is …

2. Parallel processing allows …

3. Notebook and laptop are …

4. Many people work at home and communicate with fellow workers via their …

5. … is smaller, less expensive, and easier to use than other classes of computers, such as supercomputers, mainframe computers, and workstations.

6. Computers today …

Граматичні відомості

Способи дієслів (Moods of the verb)

Особові форми дієслів англійської мови, як і в українській мові, можуть змінюватись за способами. Форми дійсного способу, що були розглянуті у попередніх розділах, відносяться до реальних фактів та подій:

He lives in Kyiv. – I made a mistake. – I’ll write it down. (I’m going to write it down.)

Дієслова у формі умовного способу описують події або стани, які розглядаються не як реальний факт, але щось імовірне, бажане, ін. В українській мові смислове дієслово в умовному способі майже завжди супроводжується часткою “б” (“би”): Я хотів би це зробити. У сучасній англійській мові для висловлення умовного способу зазвичай використовуються модальні дієслова should, would, might (may) з наступним інфінітивом:

You shouldn’t do it. – Ви не мали б цього робити.

I could do it tomorrow. – Я міг би зробити це завтра.

Якщо дієслово використовується в умовному способі самостійно, слід враховувати деякі особливості: дієслово to be у теперішньому часі має форму be, а в минулому were незалежно від особи та числа: I be, you be, he be, they be; I were, she were, they were. Зазвичай це притаманне складнопідрядним реченням, у першу чергу умовним.

Наприклад:

I wish I were with you! – Хотів би я бути з вами!

It is necessary that he be here at six. – Необхідно, щоб він був тут о шостій годині.

Всі інші дієслова в умовному способі за формою збігаються з формами дійсного способу, за винятком того, що у форми третьої особи у теперішньому часі немає закінчення -s:

It is desirable that he repair the computer. – Бажано, щоб він полагодив комп’ютер.

Ще одна особливість умовного способу – форма Present умовного способу використовується незалежно від часу попереднього дієслова:

I suggested that she see the doctor. – Я радив, щоб вона відвідала лікаря.

Форми наказового способу висловлюють спонукання до дії – пораду, наказ, прохання. Стверджувальна форма наказового способу збігається з інфінітивом без частки to:

Be here at once! – Негайно будь тут!

У заперечній формі додається допоміжне слово do та частка not:

Don’t do it. – Не робить цього.

Якщо звертаються до першої або третьої особи, часто використовують дієслово let:

Let us (let’s) go. – Підемо.

Let him come back. – Нехай він повертається.

Don’t let him go there. – Нехай він не іде туди.

У запитаннях звичайно використовуються модальні дієслова:

Should he come? – Чи треба йому приходити? – Let him. – Нехай іде.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Ми наполягаємо (insist), щоб користувач дотримувався (follow) всіх інструкцій.

2. Він розповідав про справу так, нібито був справжнім фахівцем у справі.

3. Чи не могли б ви сказати, котра зараз година?

4. Передайте йому, що ми могли би погодитись з його вимогами.

5. Лікар наполягає, щоб він лишався у ліжку декілька днів.

6. Не кажіть так!

7. Дозвольте мені розпочати.

8. Важливо, щоб їй казали правду.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences. Sometimes more than one completion is possible.

1. It is essential that he ___________ you tomorrow.

2. The students requested that the module test ________, because they were not ready.

3. Peter demanded that I ________ him the truth.

4. The teacher insists that we (not) __________ the dictionary.

5. It is important that everyone __________ in time.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання інформації: питання та відповіді

Хід розмови значною мірою залежить від теми та характеру питань, що ви збираєтесь поставити. Звичайно, особа, що ставить питання, контролює загальний настрій та темп розмови. Існують стандартні форми питань, що залежать від віку, статі, положення в суспільстві вашого співрозмовника, від того як добре ви знайомі. Найбільш обережно і ввічливо слід ставити питання незнайомцям. Вважається більш ввічливим не ставити прямих запитань. Особли­во уважним слід бути до особистих питань – про сімейний стан, роботу, рівень заробітної плати, політичні погляди. Більш ввічли­вим вважається розпочати питання з модальних дієслів у минулому часі: would, could. Нижче наведені деякі стандартні вислови, що використовуються на початку розмови.

I was wondering if you could help me. I’d like to know...

I wonder if you could tell me...

Would you mind telling me…

Excuse me, do you know...

I hope you don’t mind my asking, but I’d like to know...

Something else I’d like to know is...

Є декілька нескладних фраз, єдиною метою яких є уповільнення темпу розмови, отримання часу для роздумів та усвідомлення раніш отриманих фактів. Наприклад:

Well, let me see. . .

Well now. . .

Oh, let me think for a minute. . .

I’m not sure; I’ll have to check. . .

You know, I really don’t remember…

That’s a very interesting question.

З іншого боку, подібні фрази можуть застосовуватись у випадках, коли ви бажаєте з будь-яких причин уникнути відповіді на питання:

I’m not really sure.

I can’t answer that one.

I’m sorry, I really don’t know.

I’ve got no idea.

I’d like to help you, but. . .

That’s something I’d rather not talk about just now.

Exercise. Work in pair with your classmate. Ask your partner about his/her:

favorite place in the city, hobbies, friends.

Deal with each topic by asking questions.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 146-147 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Make sentences of your own to illustrate usage of different modal verbs for Subjunctive Mood: should, would and might.

Exercise 3. Translate into English.

1. Нехай вона зробить це сама.

2. Будь ласка, передайте йому листа.

3. Йдемо додому.

4. Не сперечайтеся!

5. Негайно викликайте пожежників!

6. Допоможіть!

7. Не хвилюйтесь, все гаразд.

Lesson 2

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What type of computer is the smallest?

2. What is main part of any digital computer?

3. How did the number of computers increase during last 50 years?

4. What are today’s applications of computers?

5. How big is modern CPU?

6. What kind of display have contemporary miniature computers?

Exercise 2. First try to guess the missing words using the list of the words below. Each of the words in the list is used only once. Then listen and check your guesses.

Currently the term “__________” usually refers to an electronic device that can perform a series of tasks according to a precise set of instructions. The set of __________is called a program, and the tasks may include _________ arithmetic calculations, storing, retrieving, and processing data, controlling another device, or interacting with a person to perform a business function or to play a video _______.

Today’s computers are marvels of__________. Machines that once weighed 30 tons and occupied warehouse-size rooms now may weigh as ________ as 1-2 kilograms and can be carried in a suit pocket or a purse. The “brains” of today’s computers are integrated circuits (ICs), sometimes called ________, or simply chips. These tiny silicon wafers can each contain millions of microscopic __________ components and are designed for many specific operations. Some chips make up a computer’s central processing unit (CPU), which controls the computer’s overall operation; some are math coprocessors that can ________ millions of mathematical operations per second; and others are memory chips that can each store more than 16 million characters of information at one _______.

In 1953 there were only about 100 computers in use in the entire world. Today hundreds of millions of computers form the core of electronic ________, and programmable computers are being used in homes, schools, businesses, government offices, and universities for almost every conceivable purpose.

Computers come in many sizes and _________. Special-purpose, or dedicated, computers are designed to perform specific tasks. Their operations are limited to the programs built into their _________. These computers are the basis for electronic calculators and can be found in thousands of other electronic products, including digital watches (controlling timing, alarms, and displays), cameras (monitoring shutter speeds and aperture settings), and _________ (controlling fuel injection, heating, and air conditioning and monitoring hundreds of electronic sensors).

General-purpose computers, such as personal computers and business computers, are much more versatile because they can ________ new programs. Each new program enables the same computer to perform a __________ set of tasks. For example, one program instructs the computer to be a word processor, another instructs it to manage inventories, and yet another transforms it into a video game.

Although some general-purpose computers are as ______ as pocket radios, the smallest class of fully functional, self-contained computers is the class called ________ computers. These usually consist of a CPU, data-storage devices called disk drives, a liquid-crystal display (_______), and a full-size keyboard – all housed in a single unit small enough to fit into a briefcase.

miniaturization instructions computer game making electronic microchips perform time shapes automobiles microchips small notebook little accept products LCD different
retrieving shutter conceivable aperture	відтворення (подавання) затвор (фотокамери) можливий діафрагма, апертура

Граматичні відомості

Погодження часів (Sequence of Tenses)

Для англійської мови характерна залежність часу дієслова у підрядному реченні від часу дієслова головного речення. Ця залежність підпорядковується так званим правилам погодження часів:

1. Якщо підмет головного речення має теперішній або майбутній час, дієслова у підрядному реченні використовуються у будь-якому часі відповідно до змісту речення, при цьому слід не забувати, що час Present Perfect є теперішнім, хоча і зазвичай відповідає минулому часу української мови:

He says you do it. He says you did it. He says you will do it.

He has said you tell this. He has said you told this. He has said you will tell this.

I’ll think you say that. I’ll think you said that. I’ll think you will say that.

2. Якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу (Past Indefinite або Past Continuous), дієслово у підрядному реченні приймає форми:

а) Past Indefinite, Past Continuous або Past Perfect, якщо дія відбувається одночасно з дією головного речення:

He said he watched TV. He said he was watching TV at that moment. He said he has watched TV.

б) Past Perfect, якщо дія підрядного речення передує дії головного речення:

He thought that she had lost her ring.

в) Одну з форм Future in the Past, якщо дія у підрядному реченні колись ще відбуватиметься:

I hoped you would be here.

Як бачимо, часто використання категорії часу дієслів в українській та англійській мовах суттєво відрізняється:

He asked me where I lived. – Він запитав, де я живу.

She said that she had known Peter for two years. – Вона сказала, що знає Петра два роки.

I was told he was waiting for me. – Мені сказали, що він чекає на мене.

Стосовно модальних дієслів діють такі правила погодження часів: якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу, то у підрядному реченні зазвичай використовують could замість can, might замість may та had to замість must, коли must висловлює необхідність завдяки обставинам:

She said she could do it.

He said he had to send her a message at once.

She said she might watch TV.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Він вже сказав, що збирається поїхати завтра.

2. Я думав, що ти живеш в іншому місті.

3. Мені повідомили, що вони вже повернулись.

4. Мені тоді казали, що все закінчиться дуже швидко.

5. Коли задзвонив телефон, я почув, як хтось стукає в двері.

6. Я був впевнений, що нічого не забув і що вже одержав усі документи.

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with verbs in appropriate form.

1. The man sitting next to me asked where I _____ from. I answered that I ______ from Kyiv.

2. I thought that he _________ at the university.

3. I replied that I __________ to the cinema next day.

4. He explained that he ________ for five hours.

5. I could not __________ because she ___________.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання інформації: питання та відповіді

Exercise 1. Listen as you read the conversation. Find out which phrases are used to get and give new information, and which ones for delaying and avoiding answers.

Nick: Hi, Peter!

Peter: Oh hi, Nick!

Nick: So, how’s your study going?

Peter: Fine, I like it a lot. It’s very satisfying to study at the university like ours. Do you know I’ve been studying here for four months already?

Nick: Uh listen, I was wandering if you could help me. Do you happen to know where there is possible to get the latest information about antivirus computer programs?

Peter: That’s a very interesting question. Well, let me see… Oh yeah, you can use a new web cite, if I remember it is something like info_security.com.

Nick: Sorry, but you know that we must type address very carefully to reach the website. Are you sure about spelling?

Peter: Don’t worry, if you use a searching server like google.com, you can’t miss it. By the way, Nick, I hope you don’t mind my asking, but are you going to specialize in computer security?

Nick: Are you kidding? Don’t you remember that my future specialty is sociology? I’m just asking for my girlfriend. She’s having a huge test next week.

Peter: Oh I understand… Is it that tall blonde I saw you with at the last party?

Nick: Well, ah… I really don’t know… I guess you mixed something. As a matter of fact my girl has dark hear. By the way, Peter, as I see you have a new mobile phone. It looks great!

Peter: Thanks. It has built in digital photo camera. Would you like to see last picture?

Nick: Let me see. It’s incredible! Such a clear picture! And what bright colours!

Peter: It has a resolution 2.0 mega pixels.

Nick: I can’t believe it! It’s almost professional level. Hey, listen. This may sound like a dumb question, but how should you focus the lens while taking pictures?

Peter: That’s a good question. This is not a camera for professionals so a focusing as well as exposition is set automatically.

Nick: Could you tell me how difficult to print the pictures?

Peter: Oh it’s easy; you can do it in any of the digital photo shops. And that’s rather inexpensive. Well, I need to run now, so bye!

Nick: See you.

Exercise 2. Work with your classmates. Discuss characteristics of some modern electronic gadgets: mobile phone, digital player, smartphone, etc. Ask questions using the conversation above as a model.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 152-153 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English using modal verbs.

1. Я міг би це зробити завтра, якщо Ви не заперечуєте.

2. Він сказав, що завтра можливо дощитиме.

3. Я думав, що вмію це робити.

4. Він сказав, що в цьому приміщенні заборонено палити.

5. Невже він міг так подумати?

6. Не слід було його слухати.

7. Я вважав, що так буде краще.

Exercise 3. Translate paying special attention to the different meaning of the word ‘appear’ (з’являтися, здаватися, мабуть, можливо, бути явним, видаватися).

The meteors are called Leonids because they appear to come from the direction of the constellation Leo the Lion.

The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible with fifth generation computers. This feat seemed a simple objective at first, but appeared much more difficult when programmers realized that human understanding relies as much on context and meaning as it does on the simple translation of words.

In practice, a patent is rarely the intrusive prohibitive right that it may at first appear to be, because patents are really about money and respect.

The cathode-ray tube is really cone-shaped, and it is one the circular base of this cone that the televised picture appears.

It has been exhilarating to work in effective partnership. Now, for many, this appears to be approaching an end.

Current belief is that the first cities appeared around 3500 BC in the valley of Sumer, where Iraq now stands.

Lesson 3

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Try to guess the missing words. Then listen and fill in the blanks.

Today’s desktop __________ computers, or PCs, are many times more powerful than the huge, million-dollar business ________ of the 1960s and 1970s. Most PCs can ________ from 150 to 400 million operations per second, and some can even perform more than 500 million. These computers are used not only for household __________ and personal entertainment, but also for most of the automated tasks required by small businesses, including word __________, generating mailing lists, tracking inventory, and calculating accounting _________. The fastest desktop computers are called _________, and they are generally used for scientific, engineering, or advanced business ___________.

Servers are fast computers that have greater data processing _________ than most PCs and workstations and can be used simultaneously by many ________. Often several PCs and workstations are connected to a server via a local area _________ (LAN). The server controls resources that are shared by the people _________ at the PCs and workstations. An example of a shared resource is a large collection of information called a ________.

Mainframes are large, extremely fast, multi-user computers that often contain complex arrays of ___________, each designed to perform a specific function. Because they can handle huge databases, simultaneously accommodate scores of users, and perform complex mathematical operations, they are the mainstay of industry, research, and university computing centers.

The speed and power of __________, the fastest class of computer, are almost beyond human comprehension, and their capabilities are continually being _________. One of the most sophisticated of these machines can theoretically perform 32 billion _________ per second, can store 256 billion characters in its memory, and can do the work of thousands of PCs. Supercomputers attain these speeds through the use of several advanced engineering ________. For example, critical circuitry is supercooled to nearly absolute _______ so that electrons can move at the speed of light, and many processing units are linked in such a way that they can all work on a single problem _________. Because these computers can cost millions of dollars, they are used primarily by government _________ and large research centers.

Computer development is rapidly progressing at both the high and the low ends of the computing spectrum. On the high end, by linking _________ networks of computers and programming them to use a language called Linda, scientists employ a _________ called parallel processing, in which a problem is broken down into smaller subproblems that are then distributed among the networked computers. A goal of this technology is the creation of a machine that could perform a trillion _________ per second, a measure known as a teraflop. At the other end of the spectrum, computer companies are developing small, handheld personal digital assistants (PDAs). For example, a PDA called the Palm Pilot lets _______ use a pen to input handwritten information through a touch-sensitive screen and to send mail and faxes to other computers. Researchers are currently developing microchips called digital signal processors (DSPs) to enable computers to recognize and interpret human _______. This development, which will permit people in all professions to use a computer quickly and easily, promises to lead to a revolution in the way humans communicate and transfer _________.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What type of computers is the most common nowadays?

2. What is the speed of modern computers?

3. What is parallel processing used for?

4. Is any type of a vacuum tube applied in contemporary computers?

5. Which modern technologies are applied to the most powerful computers?

6. What do you think is the most important use of computers today?

7. What type of input devices is more convenient: keyboard or touch-sensitive screen?

Exercise 3. Use these words and their combinations to make sentences:

to supercool, DSP, PDA, programming language, to network, flop, simultaneously, handheld, to interpret, handwritten information.

Граматичні відомості

Погодження форм часу, винятки з правил

Коли дієслово у підрядному реченні означає загальновідомий факт, закон природи, то воно може використовуватись у теперішньому часі незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

The teacher explained us that the earth turns around the sun.

У мовленні правило узгодження форм часу також часто не використовується, коли зрозуміло, що дія або стан, висловлені у підрядному реченні, актуальні і в момент розмови:

I heard that she’s going to marry Peter.

He said in the morning that he will pass a test tomorrow.

Однак, у вказаних вище випадках звичайно не вважається помилкою і формальне дотримання правил погодження часів:

He explained that the earth turned around the sun.

Правила узгодження форм часу не діють у підрядних реченнях означальних, порівняльних та причиннових, у яких дієслова можуть використовуватись у теперішньому або майбутньому часі, навіть якщо підмет головного речення має форму минулого часу:

Nick told me about the computer you are working with.

Computers were not as fast as they are today.

The data were sent to server which is out of order now.

Ann refused to go to the party because she will be busy tonight.

Модальні дієслова should та ought використовуються незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

He sought that he ought to call his mother.

He said I should learn hard.

Це також стосується і дієслова must, коли воно виражає наказ, пораду, або заборону:

He told us that we mustn’t smoke at the university.

Форма Present умовного способу використовується незалежно від часу підмета головного речення:

It was extremely important he follow all instructions. – Дуже важливо, щоб він виконував усі інструкції.

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

1. Він сказав, що ми не повинні вмикати обладнання, поки не знаємо, як з ним поводитись.

2. Вона казала, що завтра не буде дощу.

3. Науковці розповіли про дослідження, що будуть виконуватись згідно зі спільним планом.

4. Як показали останні експерименти, зниження температури майже не впливає на продуктивність процесу.

5. Вони внесли поправки, щоб результати не були спотворені (to distort).

Exercise 2. Remove the brackets using the verbs in appropriate form.

1. I have heard a lot about the book you (to read) now.

2. She was once cleverer that she (to be) now.

3. It was necessary that we (to receive) all instructions before start.

4. The professor explained that the rule (not/to work) at a temperature above 1000 K.

5. I thought that the weather (to be) better the next day.

Комунікативна практика

Отримання додаткової інформації

Під час бесіди трапляється, що ви не одразу отримуєте вичерпну інформацію щодо питання, яке обговорюється, або не розумієте деякі деталі. Тоді вам потрібно поставити додаткові питання. Нижче наведені деякі типові конструкції, доречні у таких ситуаціях:

Could you tell me some more about …?

Would you mind telling me more about …?

I’d like to know something more about …

Excuse me, I don’t understand how …

I understand, but I was wondering about …

Sorry, but I don’t understand what …

Sorry to keep after you, but where …

Під час розмови враховуйте ступінь знайомства з співбесідником, його вік і т. ін.

Exercise 1. Learn once more conversation on pages 155-156. Find out the questions intended for getting more information.

Exercise 2. Work in pairs or small groups. Pretend that one person is a travel agent and other – a client arranging a holiday trip. Prepare a small conversation between the agent and the client. The client tries to get as much information as possible about the place he’s going to (sights, accommodation, tickets, prices, etc.).

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 158-159 into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English.

1. Нам щойно зателефонували і повідомили, що делегація вже прибула.

2. Думаючи, що він вже приїхав, я поїхав до нього.

3. Я сказав, що напишу відгук (reference) після того, як повернусь із відпустки.

4. Я чув цю історію, яку зараз збираюсь вам розповісти, декілька років тому.

5. Він сказав, що нам не слід очікувати покращення ситуації на ринку.

6. Я відчував, що моя розповідь цікавить його.

Exercise 3. Substitute the words in italics by one of the words from the box.

to perform, guidance, in addition to, activity, to appoint, modern, to be educated, to contain

They work under the direction of a prominent scientist.

The experiments were carried on successfully.

The date of the congress was settled several months ago.

He is well taught.

Our institute has got some new equipment as well as soundproof chamber.

The equipment appeared to be up-to-date.

He was a great peace-fighter and his deeds are well known.

There are many useful data in this paper.

Lesson 4

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Use these words and their combinations to make sentences of your own:

to process, server, networking, link, programmer, System Administrator, function, LAN, access, Internet, password, computer virus, diskette, hard drive.

Exercise 2. Work in small groups. Participants take turns in offering some term concerning the topic “Types of computers”. The rest of the group has to write down as many as possible words which go with that term.

Example: notebook – portable, flat, LCD, built in modem, trackball, Toshiba, laptop, etc.

Exercise 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. If you think the statement is false, change to make it true.

1. Most of modern PCs can perform thousands arithmetic operations per second.

2. Researchers are currently developing microchips to enable computers to recognize and interpret human speech.

3. Common mainframe has one, sometimes 2 CPU.

4. Some general-purpose computers are as small as pocket radios.

5. Most sophisticated modern computers use the power of animal’s brains.

6. Modern industrial computers are considered as sixth generation computers.

Граматичні відомості

Прислівник (The Adverb)

Англійське ім’я прислівника (від add – додавати та verb – дієслово) вдало характеризує його функції – він указує на ознаки дії або на обставини, за яких ця дія відбувається. Прислівник відповідає на питання “як?”, “коли?” і “де?”.

Розрізняють такі основні види прислівників:

а) Часу: when (коли), now (зараз), today (сьогодні), lately (нещодавно), since (з тих пір), often (часто), seldom (рідко) та інші.

The work has been already finished.

I’ve never seen him since.

б) Місця: here (тут), above (над), somewhere (де-небудь), nowhere (ніде) та інші.

He is here.

Where are you going to? – Nowhere.

в) Міри та ступеня: much (багато), little (мало), too (занадто), enough (досить), almost (майже), so (так) та інші. Деякі з них (very, too, so та ін.) використовуються не самостійно, а разом з іншими прислівниками та прикметниками.

He reads very much. How late it is! She’s almost finished her job. He’s very smart.

г) Способу дії: well (добре), fast (швидко), easily легко), quickly (швидко) та інші.

He was driving too fast.

До прислівників також належать такі питальні слова, як when, where, why:

Why do you think so?

Деякі з прислівників, наприклад, so, however, yet, how, використовуються для поєднання частин складного речення:

I want to know how he does it.

Часто вони фактично виконують роль сполучника:

I was sick, so I called a doctor.

He always comes before I do.

Значна кількість прислівників утворюється від прикметників додаванням суфікса -ly:

easy – easily, correspondent – correspondently, brave – bravely.

При цьому слід мати на увазі, що деякі прислівники просто збігаються за формою з прийменниками, наприклад fast, long:

fast train – прикметник, to work fast – прислівник.

Деякі з прислівників мають дві форми, як з -ly, так і без цього суфікса. Ці форми, однак, звичайно різняться значенням:

I work hard. – Я працюю наполегливо.

There was hardly any traffic. – Руху майже не було.

Як і прикметники, деякі з прислівників мають ступені порів­няння. В таблиці 14 наведені приклади. Короткі слова змінюються, як і прикметники, додаванням суфіксів -er та -est, більш довгі прислівники та такі, що походять від прикметників додаванням закінчення -ly, утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою слів more та most. Як і у випадку прикметників, деякі прислівники змінюються не за правилами (в таблиці виділені).

Таблиця 14

Ступені порівняння прислівників

Прислівник	Вищий ступінь порівняння	Найвищий ступінь порівняння
fast late early often clearly correctly well much badly little far	faster later earlier more often more clearly more correctly better more worse less farther (further)	fastest - (only for adjective) earliest most often most clearly most correctly best most worst least farthest (furthest)

На відміну від прикметників артикль the перед прислівником у найвищому ступені порівняння звичайно не використовується:

Peter works best in the morning. Which of them works (the) best?

Exercise 1. Remove brackets, choosing the correct form of the word, add appropriate ending (-ly) if it is required.

1. I like this device (well) than that.

2. You should have told me this (early).

3. The program was (perfect) done.

4. The guests seem to be very (happy).

5. She asked it (quiet).

6. The two books looked (different).

7. It tastes (bad).

8. Our new students work hard.

Exercise 2. Choose the proper form (Adjective or Adverb) given in parenthesis.

1. John does his job very (good, well) because he has (good, well) instruments.

2. Ann was ill, but now she is (good, well).

3. Nick is a (careless, carelessly) driver. He drives (careless, carelessly).

4. The situation is (bad, badly), but it could be much (bad, badly).

Комунікативна практика

Порівняння, почуття, відчуття (look, feel, sound, smell, and taste + adjective)

В англійській мові часто використовуються безособові вислови, що містять порівняння:

It sounds good. – Звучить добре.

It smells terrific. – Пахне погано.

It tastes beautiful. – Смакує чудово.

На відміну від української мови в таких реченнях використовують не прислівники, а прикметники, тобто порівняльна характеристика (good, terrific, beautiful) в англійському реченні відноситься до займенника it, а дієслова sound, smell, taste використовуються лише для зв’язку слів у реченні (linking verbs). Це стає цілком зрозумілим, якщо ми порівняємо наведені речення з прикладом, де особа вказана, а дієслово-зв’язка без будь-якої шкоди до змісту під час перекладу може бути пропущена:

I feel hungry. = I am hungry. Я голодний.

Exercise. Listen to the conversation and then use it as a model talking with your classmates.

A: What is in this box? It smells delicious!

B: Don’t touch it. It’s uncle’s Tom birthday cake. Why didn’t you have breakfast?

A: I felt awful. You know, we had a nice party yesterday…

B: Oh, I understand your feelings. Don’t worry; we’ll arrive in fifteen minutes.

A: It sounds good. I’m starving.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text into Ukrainian (Russian).

The real beginnings of computers as we know them today lay with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage (1791-1871). Frustrated at the many errors he found while examining calculations for the Royal Astronomical Society, Babbage declared, ‘I wish to God these calculations had been performed by steam!’ With those words, the automation of computers had begun. By 1812, Babbage noticed a natural harmony between machines and mathematics: machines were best at performing tasks repeatedly without mistake; while mathematics, particularly the production of mathematic tables, often required the simple repetition of steps. The problem centered on applying the ability of machines to the needs of mathematics. Babbage’s first attempt at solving this problem was in 1822 when he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. Powered by steam and large as a locomotive, the machine would have a stored program and could perform calculations and print the results automatically. After working on the Difference Engine for 10 years, Babbage was suddenly inspired to begin work on the first general-purpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, a daughter of English poet Lord Byron, was instrumental in the machine’s design. One of the few people who understood the Engine’s design as well as Babbage, she helped revise plans, secure funding from the British government, and communicate the specifics of the Analytical Engine to the public. Also, her fine understanding of the machine allowed to create the instruction routines to be fed into the computer, making her the first female computer programmer. Babbage’s steam-powered Engine, although ultimately never constructed, may seem primitive by today’s standards. However, it outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept. Consisting of over 50,000 components, the basic design of the Analytical Engine included input devices in the form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a “store” for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a “mill” with a control unit that allowed processing instructions in any sequence, and output devices to produce printed results. Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to encode the machine’s instructions from the Jacquard loom. The loom, produced in 1820 and named after its inventor, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched boards that controlled the patterns to be woven.

In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Holerith (1860-1929), also applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing. His first task was to find a faster way to compute the census in the USA. The previous census in 1880 had taken nearly seven years to count and with an expanding population, the bureau feared it would take 10 years to count the latest census. Unlike Babbage’s idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s method used cards to store data information which he fed into a machine that compiled the results mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number, and combinations of two punches represented one letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a single card. Instead of ten years, census takers compiled their results in just six weeks with Hollerith’s machine. In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage method for data and they helped reduce computational errors. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924. Both business and government used punch cards for data processing until the 1960’s.

Exercise 2. Make comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives and adverbs.

late, lately, near, nearly (almost), especially, well, already, simple, rarely, far.

Exercise 3. Put the adverb in the parenthesis in an appropriate form (comparative or superlative).

1. I like this program (well) ________ than that.

2. Which of these TV channels do you enjoy (much) _______ ?

3. Which of these two books did you like (much) ________ ?

4. He does his job (correctly) _________ of all in this group.

5. The virus spread out (quickly) _______ than we expected.

6. With these new glasses I can see you (clearly) _______ than before.

Exercise 4. Translate sentences. Pay attention to the verb to take.

1. When messages are sent along the Internet, they are broken up into small “packets” that take different routes to get to the destination.

2. When selecting firewalls, the following considerations should be taken into account.

3. But when steps are taken to hide the sequence the result can have significant strength.

4. Typically, a ciphertext is deciphered under different keys until plaintext is recognised. On average, this may take about half as many decipherings as there are keys.

5. Typically these take the form of iterative applications of fairly simple computations.

6. Involution is a cipher which takes plaintext to ciphertext and ciphertext back to plaintext, using the exact same operation.

Lesson 5

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Skim the text and answer the questions about it content.

In the ensuing years, several engineers made other significant advances. Vannevar Bush (1890-1974) developed a calculator for solving differential equations in 1931. The machine could solve complex differential equations that had long left scientists and mathematicians baffled. The machine was cumbersome because hundreds of gears and shafts were required to represent numbers and their various relationships to each other. To eliminate this bulkiness, John V.Atanasoff, a professor at Iowa State College and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, envisioned an all-electronic computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry. This approach was based on the mid-19th century work of George Boole (1815-1864) who clarified the binary system of algebra, which stated that any mathematical equations could be stated simply as either true or false. By extending this concept to electronic circuits in the form of on or off, Atanasoff and Berry had developed the first all-electronic computer by 1940. Their project, however, lost its funding and their work was overshadowed by similar developments by other scientists.

With the onset of the World War II, governments sought to develop computers to exploit their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects hastened technical progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode encrypted German messages. The Colossus’s impact on the development of the computer industry was rather limited for two important reasons. First, Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until decades after the war.

American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), a Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded in producing an all-electronic calculator by 1944. The purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about half as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring. The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I for short, was a electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was slow (taking 3-5 seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations could not change).

Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the U.S. government and the University of Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power, enough energy to dim the lights in an entire section of a big city. Developed by John Presper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC, unlike the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I.

In the mid-1940’s John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that remained central to computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer EDVAC in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data.

This “stored memory” technique as well as the “conditional control transfer,” that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. One of UNIVAC’s impressive early achievements was predicting the winner of the 1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

1. How big and fast were the first computers?

2. What type of computer was Colossus?

3. What were the first industrial computers used for?

4. What provided versatility in computer programming?

5. Which of computers predicted the winner of the 1952 presidential election in the USA?

Exercise 2. Explain the terms with other words.

1. Speed of computer.

2. General purpose computer.

3. Stored memory.

4. Encoding/decoding.

5. Programming.

6. Computer architecture.

Граматичні відомості

Прийменник (The Preposition)

Як і в українській мові, англійські прийменники характери­зують відношення іменника чи займенника до інших слів у реченні:

He studies at National Aviation University.

I cut the paper with a scissors.

Англійські іменники майже не змінюються за відмінком. Для погодження слів у реченні часто використовують прийменники, тобто вони часто виконують функцію, що відповідає зміні українських слів за відмінком:

The book was signed by the author. – Книга підписана автором (орудний відмінок).

I showed the book to the author. – Я показав авторові книгу (давальний відмінок).

Правильне використання прийменників є одним з най­складніших завдань під час вивчення англійської мови. Зміст багатьох англійських дієслів часто суттєво залежить від приймен­ника, що використовується разом з ними:

to look after (the children) – бути відповідальним (піклуватися);

to look at (Peter) – дивитися;

to look back on (those days) – згадувати;

to look for (a book) – шукати;

to look into (the crime) – розслідувати;

to look through (the paper) – швидко переглядати.

У деяких випадках вони фактично утворюють сталі сполучення з дієсловами – ідіоми.

Надзвичайно складною для українців, що вивчають англійську мову є відсутність сталої відповідності між значеннями українських та англійських прийменників. Наприклад, прийменник in в залежності від контексту може позначати: положення (in the garden – у садку, in the street – на вулиці, in the space – в космосі); прибуття, входження (to arrive in the city – приїхати до міста); час (in an hour –за/через годину) і так далі. Інколи значення прийменника англійської мови передається взагалі не прийменником, а іншими засобами, наприклад, зміною іменника, як у розглянутих вище прикладах з орудним та давальним відмінками, прислівниками, наприклад, in the winter – взимку та ін., наприклад, tree in fruit – дерево, вкрите плодами.

Під час вивчення англійської мови слід засвоювати не лише значення прийменників як окремих одиниць мови, але також і їх значення у сполученні з іншими частинами мови – дієсловами, іменниками, займенниками, необхідно запам’ятовувати окремі ідіоми, в яких застосовуються прийменники. У додатку 3 цього посібника наведені приклади використання деяких з найбільш вживаних прийменників англійської мови. Більш докладну інформацію про використання прийменників у конкретних сполученнях з іншими словами слід шукати у словниках та фразеологічних довідниках, зокрема у рекомендованих у списку літератури наприкінці посібника.

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with appropriate prepositions. Check it with a dictionary if you are not sure in usage of prepositions.

1. He studies ___ National Aviation University.

2. She threw a stone _____ the river.

3. This building is made _____ wood.

4. A paper is made _______ wood.

5. I have been working here ____ two hours.

6. They are waiting ___ us.

7. I reminded ___ his promise.

Exercise 2. Translate sentences into English.

1. Зустріч відбудеться у неділю.

2. Будь ласка, відріжте цей шматок.

3. Він притулився до стіни, читаючи газету.

4. Я залишусь тут до понеділка.

5. Підійдіть до мене.

6. Це відбулось до закінчення лекції.

7. Я поїду з вами до аеропорту.

КОМУНІКАТИВНА ПРАКТИКА

Згадуючи минуле

Listen to the conversation and then practice with your classmate. Correct mistakes in answers.

A: Listen, here’s a quiz on events of the twentieth century.

B: Oh, I used to be good at history, so let me give it a try.

A: OK. First question: who was the first man in space?

B: Oh, it’s easy; it was Neil Armstrong in 1966, then he flew to the moon in the summer 1969.

A: Well… And when did World War II begin?

B: It began in 1941 when Japanese fleet attacked Pearl Harbor and lasted till August 1945 when Hiroshima was destroyed.

A: Hmm... Next question: how long has the UN been in existence?

B: Since 1961 when Cuban Missile Crisis was settled. Uh, how am I doing so far?

A: Not excellent. None of your answers was correct.

Декілька корисних нотаток щодо посилань на події та дати у минулому:

Referring to a definite point of time in the past use in, during and ago.

Personal computers came to common use during 1990s.

The Soviet space program started 50 years ago.

To express a period of time expressions from … to, for, till (until) are used.

World War I lasted from 1914 to 1918.

Hitler wanted to start in the fall of 1940, but his advisers persuaded him to avoid the risks of a winter campaign in the Soviet Union and wait until the spring.

"How long did you live in Spain?" - "Oh, for about three years."

To express a period of time that continuous now use since and for.

No human has landed on the moon since the Apollo project ended.

Exercise. Work with a partner and share your experience in spending summer vacations, camping, etc.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the text from pages 170-171 (Exercise 1) into Ukrainian (Russian).

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with prepositions at, on or in.

1. Are you busy ___ the weekend?

2. I’ll call you ____ Monday morning ____ 9 o’clock.

3. Peter’s brother is working ___ the University ____ the moment.

4. I read this article ____ two hours.

5. I might not be at home ___ the morning. Could you call me ___ night instead.

6. He was born in Kharkiv ____ 1977.

7. Hurry up! We must be ____ the airport ____ 15 minutes.

Lesson 6

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Exercise 1. Answer the questions:

1. What did you hear about different generations of computers? How strict is this division?

2. How important was replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors?

3. What components are essential for modern computers?

4. Why there are a lot of programming languages? How different are operations written in programs from real operations executed by computers?

5. What do you know about development of computer technologies in Ukraine after the World War II?

Exercise 2. Work with your classmate. Offer some verbs concerning the topic of the lesson. Your partner has to give adverbs fitted them.

Example: to develop (technologies) - fast, creatively, rapidly, unexpectedly, etc.

Make comparative and superlative degrees of these adverbs if possible.

Граматичні відомості

Місце прийменника у реченні. Збіг за формою деяких прийменників та прислівників

Зазвичай, як і в українській мові, прийменник в англійському реченні розміщується перед іменником чи займенником:

Ann studies at the university.

You must talk to him.

Якщо перед іменником є означення, то прийменник ставиться перед цим означенням:

I live in a big house.

Однак у деяких випадках, особливо це характерно для мовлення, прийменник також може відокремлюватись від іменника або займенника та зміщуватись на кінець речення:

Whom do you speak to? (To whom do you speak?)

The place which he is going to (to which he is going) seems very distant.

Таке відокремлення прийменника від об’єкта також характерно для деяких пасивних та інфінітивних зворотів, що були розглянуті раніше:

The priest was sent for. У активі: They sent for the priest.

I have no tools to work with.

Слід зауважити, що ті самі слова можуть виконувати у різних ситуаціях роль як прийменника, так і прислівника:

Tim had climbed up a tree to get a better view. – Тім зібрався на дерево, щоб побачити кращій краєвид. – прийменник.

Tim climbed up to see better. – Тім зібрався нагору, щоб краще бачити. – прислівник.

Часто такі слова нерозривно пов’язуються з дієсловами, утворюючи так звані подвійні (інколи потрійні) дієслова: to turn on (off) – вмикати (вимикати), to put on (off) – одягати (знімати), to cross out – закреслювати, to drop out of – припиняти щось відвідувати і т.д. Як правило, слова on, off, out і т.п. виконують роль прислівника, оскільки характеризують процес, дієслово, а не є просто зв’язкою між дієсловом та іменником.

Остання частина подібного подвійного дієслова може відокремлюватись і переноситись на кінець речення:

Please turn off the light. = Please turn the light off. – Будь ласка, вимкніть світло.

Оскільки на практиці питання про віднесення слів до певної частини мови не є дуже важливим для більшості людей, у словниках і фразеологічних посібниках вищезгадані прийменники-прислівники розглядаються разом. Так це зроблено й у додатку 2 цього посібника, де поруч з прийменниками надані приклади і для прислівників, що збігаються за формою з прийменниками.

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Над ким він сміявся?

2. Кого вона шукає?

3. Запитайте його, від кого він щойно отримав повідомлення.

4. Проблема, над якою вони зараз працюють, дуже актуальна.

5. У мене нема олівця, щоб я міг писати.

6. Він вчиться у добре відомому в усьому світі університеті.

Exercise 2. Listen to an introduction of a teacher at a beginning of a class. Find out in the text two word verbs. Pay attention that in all cases the object is between the verb and preposition. Then try to read the text in another way, putting the object after the preposition. After reading check yourself listening to the text again.

Good morning for everybody. Today I’m going to explain you how to use a new program. First of all I want you to take your pens and notebooks off and be ready to write all I say down. Nick, please pull the windows shades down: today the sun shines too brightly. And Ann, please pick all these things up. Maybe the previous group left them. Peter, try the computer out. Don’t forget to turn the main switch on. Ann, turn your mobile phone off. Now, let’s start. Peter, put the CD in and run the program.

Комунікативна практика

Порівняння об’єктів

First listen to the following conversation as an example and then practice your own conversation with you partner. Use adjectives and adverbs including comparative and superlative forms as often as you can.

A: What city do you like, Ann?

B: Kyiv is the best.

A: Why?

B: It's exciting. It's bigger. The buildings are taller. The people are livelier.

A: I understand what do you mean, but I like Poltava better.

B: Why is that?

A: Well, it’s slower, it’s smaller, and it’s cosier.

B: OK. You know as they say, “The east, the west, the home is best”.

Exercise. Practice conversation with you partner following example. Use adjectives and adverbs including comparative and superlative forms.

Вправи для самостійної роботи

Exercise 1. Translate the following text into Ukrainian (Russian).

First Generation Computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.

By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer’s development. The transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the size of electronic machinery has been shrinking ever since (Second Generation Computers, 1956-1963). The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage of this transistor technology were early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand. These computers, both developed for atomic energy laboratories, could handle an enormous amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic scientists. The machines were costly, however, and tended to be too powerful for the business sector’s computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness. Only two LARCs were ever installed: one in the Lawrence Radiation Labs in Livermore, California, for which the computer was named (Livermore Atomic Research Computer) and the other at the U.S. Navy Research and Development Center. Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult binary codes.

Throughout the early 1960’s, there were a number of commercially successful second generation computers used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control Data, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others. These second generation computers were also of solid state design, and contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is considered by many to be the Model T of the computer industry. By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information using second generation computers.

It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept meant that instructions to run a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held inside the computer’s memory, and could quickly be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. A computer could print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate paychecks. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into common use during this time, and have expanded to the current day. These languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences, and mathematical formulas, making it much easier to program a computer. New types of careers (programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software industry began with second generation computers.

Exercise 2. Use vocabulary from Exercise 1 to complete the sentences below.

1. Programs fall into two major classes: ___________ programs and __________ systems.

2. ______________ is used in artificial intelligence research and to perform such tasks as machine translation, process control, handwriting recognition, and weather forecasting.

3. Ceramic metal-oxide compounds containing rare earth elements were found to be _____________ at temperatures high enough to permit using liquid nitrogen as a coolant.

4. Dialog between the ________ and the computer is usually accomplished by command-line or graphical ________ interfaces (GUIs).

5. News reporters can compose news stories on portable PCs, called _________, and electronically submit these stories from remote locations.

Lesson 7

ВИВЧЕННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ ЗА ТЕМОЮ МОДУЛЯ

Listen to the text and then answer the questions.

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer’s sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Another Third Generation Computers development (1964-1971) included the use of an operating system that allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the computer’s memory.

Modern development of computers is usually considered as Forth Generation. After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down – in size, that is. Large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980’s, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so much onto an area about half the size of a U.S. dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit had had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as microwave ovens, television sets and cars incorporated microprocessors.

Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer’s power. They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or government contracts. By the mid-1970’s, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical users an array of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. In the early 1980’s, video games ignited consumer interest for more sophisticated, programmable home computers.

In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. The 1980’s saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket). In direct competition with IBM’s PC was Apple’s Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. Notable for its user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of one’s hand on the computer screen.

As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer, which was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form electronic co-ops like Internet.

1. What allowed microprocessors to be widely used in everyday life?

2. Which common things use microcomputers?

3. Why PC’s became widespread so quickly?

4. Which companies pioneered in development of personal computers?

5. What are distinguishing features of modern PCs?

6. What generation of computers followed the Forth Generation?